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Describe the prior research of the study by Pozzulo et al.
Research shows that under some conditions, child and adult eyewitnesses differ with their identification accuracy.
Children and adults produce comparable correct identifications in a target-present line-up.
Children are more likely to pick out an innocent person than adults in a target-absent line-up.
State the aims of the study by Pozzulo et al.
To investigate if children are less able to recognize human faces than adults.
To investigate if cognitive or social factors affect correct identification and false positive responses in a line-up.
Identify the subjects and sampling technique of the study by Pozzulo et al.
59 young children, 21F 38M aged 4-7 (Mean age of 5)
Opportunity sampling
53 adults, 36F 17M, aged 17-30 (Mean age of 21)
Volunteer/self-selecting
State the type of experiment and research method in the study by Pozzulo et al.
Laboratory experiment
Questionnaires and interviews
Describe the type of data collected by Pozzulo et al.
Quantitative ONLY
Percentages of correct targets chosen
Foils chosen
False rejections
Percentages of correct and incorrect rejection
In the study by Pozzulo et al., provide the IV'S.
Age (young child/adult)
Nature of target faces (cartoon, human)
Type of line-up (target present, target absent)
In the study by Pozzulo et al., provide the DV'S.
Correct identification rates for target-present line-ups
Correct rejection rates for target-absent line-ups
Give the design of the study by Pozzulo et al.
Hybrid independent and repeated measures, since 2 groups were compared but also were exposed to both line-ups
The four videos (Diego, Dora, male actor, female actor) were randomized for each participant to avoid order effects.
The order of faces in the line-ups were also randomized.
Outline the apparatus of the study by Pozzulo et al.
RESPONSE FORM:
All participants were given the response form (Parent/Guardian filled out in the stead of children)
Eight questions were asked: Their age, gender, primary language, ethnicity, number of children in the household and their ages, the amount of time spent watching cartoons per week, and how much time spent watching the cartoons from the study (Dora, Diego)
HUMAN FACE TARGETS:
One female and one male Caucasian university student (each 22-years old) were targets. They each filmed a video (Girl brushing hair in bathroom, boy putting on coat and exiting his home)
Each video provided a 2-3 second closeup of their face, and were filmed in color.
No sound
HUMAN FACE FOILS:
Each human was photographed in a different outfit than what was worn during the videoclip.
Selected from a pool of 90 females and 90 males, and the foils were chosen based on similar appearance to the target, measured by hair color, length, and general face structure.
3 raters selected 4 foils.
Targets and foils were cropped so their face neck and tops of their shoulders were shown.
Target-present: Target and 3 foils
Target-absent: 4 foils
All photos were black and white
CARTOON TARGETS:
Six second, colored clips of the targets were used.
Dora: Talking to the audience
Diego: Putting on a pair of gloves for safety
Each video gave a 2-3 second closeup of ONLY the targets face
Sound was muted
CARTOON FOILS:
Selected from a vast number of readily available cartoon images
Selected based on similar appearance to intended target, such as hair color, length, and facial structure
Three raters judged about 10 photographs for each target, and the 4 with the highest similarity ratings were selected
Most were displayed in similar clothes across different videos
Cartoons depicted in photo-arrays were cropped from the top of the shoulders to their face to reduce the appearance of any clothing worn
All were in black and white
Target-present line-up: Target and 3 foils
Target-absent line-up: 4 foils
Describe the controls of the experiment by Pozzulo et al.
All participants completed the response form prior to the procedure.
All videos and line-ups orders were randomized.
The instructions for the photo-array line-ups were standardized
Line-ups were presented using software on a laptop
All experimenters wore the same type of "professional-casual" clothing.
Describe the child procedure of Pozzulo et al.
The parents/guardians were supplied with a written consent form and the demographics sheet, to be completed by the parent/guardian to ensure the cartoons were familiar to the children.
With consent and completed demographics forms, three female experimenters and one female facilitator arrived at the school.
Researchers were introduced to the students as a group from the university doing a project on TV shows and videogames.
During the introduction, the researchers made it clear that they could change their minds at any time and not be in trouble.
In order to create comfort with the child, they engaged in arts and crafts prior to the experimental task.
Each child was tested individually and monitored for fatigue, anxiety, or stress.
Each child was told they'd be watching videos of people doing different things, and to pay attention because they would be asked questions and shown pictures.
Once the child was comfortable, they played the first video. (human or cartoon)
After viewing the clip, the child was asked one free recall question. "What did the cartoon character/person look like?" After the response, the experimenter asked a non-specific probing question such as "Do you remember anything else."
If the child did not respond to the initial question, they were asked again.
After recording the information provided by the child, the experimenter displayed the line-up to the child on a laptop.
The experimenter asked the child to identify the cartoon or person they saw by pointing. They were also were informed the target may not be there, and that if they weren't to point to the box.
The response was recorded.
Following identification, the procedure was repeated for the additional three videos, each time reminding the children that the cartoon/person they are looking for may be absent.
After completing the study task, the children were thanked and given a gift of crayons and a coloring book.
The facilitator was responsible for entertaining the children while they waited to complete the experimental task.
Describe the adult procedure of Pozzulo et al.
When entering the lab, they were given a short introduction to the study and provided with a consent form that explained they would be participating in a study about memory.
Following the signing of the consent form, they were told they'd be watching some video clips.
They were also asked to pay attention because following the video they would be asked questions and shown pictures.
After the first video, the participants were provided with a sheet asking a free recall question, "What did the cartoon character/person look like?"
The question was followed up with, "Do you remember anything else about the cartoon character/person?" The participant then wrote down all they could remember about the video.
When finished, the experimenter displayed the corresponding line=up on a laptop to the participant.
The experimenter asked the participant to identify the cartoon or person they saw in the video if he or she was present by indicating their selection on a matching sheet.
The experimenter informed the participant that the person they saw may not be there, and that they could select the option that corresponds to the silhouette photograph in each line-up.
Following identification, the procedure was repeated for the additional three videos, each time reminding the participants that the target may not be present.
Following completion of the videos and lineups, participants were given a demographic questionnaire assessing their familiarity with the cartoons shown. Finally, the participants were debriefed and thanked.
Outline the results of the study by Pozzulo et al.
Children correctly identified:
23% of human faces
99% of cartoon faces
Adults correctly identified:
66% of human faces
95% of cartoon faces
Adults and children were significantly more accurate with cartoon faces.
TARGET PRESENT LINE-UPS:
Children and adults produced a comparable correct identification rate for cartoon characters
Children compared to adults produced a significantly lower rate of correct identification for human faces.
TARGET-ABSENT LINE-UPS
Children correctly rejected:
Human faces 45% of the time
Cartoon faces 74% of the time
Adults correctly rejected:
Human faces 70% of the time
Cartoon faces 94% of the time
Describe the conclusion of the study Pozzulo et al.
Young children have lower correct identification and correct rejection rates for human faces than adults.
Since children were able to correctly identify cartoon characters in target-present line-ups, cognitive factors were not responsible for the lower success rate in target-absent line-ups
In target-absent line-up, however, children had a much lower correct rejection rate for the familiar cartoon characters and human faces compared to adults. This suggests that children are more likely to make errors in the target-absent line-up due to social expectation, not faulty memory.
Suggests that young children's false positive responses in target-absent line-ups may be driven more by social factors than cognitive factors.
Children are less accurate when faced with human actors and more likely to give false positive responses than adults.
Give two strengths of the study by Pozzulo et al.
Written consent: Adults signed a written consent form
Debriefing: Adults were informed of what they would be doing
Child representation: Were told they could withdraw at any time and protected from harm, by ensuring they were not stressed, agitated or uncomfortable
Confidentiality: No names or other private information were released
Standardization: Easily replicable procedure with standardized instructions (Controls, questionnaires, line-ups)
Randomization/Counter-balancing: Random order of the videos, reduced order effects, improving validity
Reliability: Repeated measures design allows for replication and consistent findings
Generalizability: Findings applicable to Pre-K/Kindergarten children, teenagers, and young adults
Usefulness: Children can make good eyewitnesses for familiar faces and there are protocols in how a line-up can be successfully presented to them.
Ecological validity: Child procedure was done at their school
Quantitative data: Statistically comparable findings about line-up performances.
Validity: Aims confirmed, demographic watch sheet (Avoids participant variables.
Give two weaknesses of the study by Pozzulo et al.
Deception: Mental distress in children, as they were not debriefed
Generalizations: Difficult to apply findings to other cartoon characters and non-Caucasian humans (Ethnocentrism)
Participants from Canada and study, cannot be applied to adolescents or senior citizens or children from higher socio-economic level
Ecological validity: Adult procedure done in a lab
Line-up photos in black and white
Mundane realism: Eyewitnesses do not see closeup videos of a scene and pick from a line-up off a computer.
Reliability: Children were asked an additional follow-up question and experimenter wrote down their response.
Qualitative data: No descriptive data to explain why there is a low percentage of line-up rejection in children.
Validity: Researcher bias at probing the children and writing down their response.
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