Studied by 5 peopleNorasakkunkit & Uchida (2014)
Aim: To investigate the relationship b/n an indiv.'s attitude towards collectivism & conformity (both valued in Japan) to the risk of hikikomori.
(Hikikomori is a culture-bound syndrome found primarily in Japan where young Japanese may lock themselves in their rooms and refuse to come out for years at a time. a form of sever social withdrawal some argue is a result of marginilaation. )
Participants: 195 Japanese uni students
Method: Correlational study.
Pps were given standardised test to assess whether they were high risk/low risk for hikikomore. pps were given another test to measure their attitudes about social harmony and social conformity. looked into three things:
perception of current self
perception of ideal self
general perception of the Japanese society
3rd test to measure local identity ( japanese values, high on social harmony and collectivism) and global identity (western valaues, individualistic, goal orientated, etc)
Results: both groups agreed that social harmony and conformity were highly valued by Japanese society.
Pps assessed to be at a high risk of becoming hikikomori often ranked social-harmony low in comparison to low risk pps. High risk participants also scored low in both local identity/culture & global identity/culture.
This suggests that high risk pps did not identify w/ either Japanese collectivistic values / Western individualistic values, leaving them lost & feeling isolated (identity confusion). Thus, this indicates that hikikomori may stem from feelings of alienation.
Lueck & Wilson (2010)
Aim: to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrant and Asian Americans
Participants:the sample consisted of 2095 Asian Americans
1271 were first-generation immigrants who were 18 years or older when they came to the US
the rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents
the sample consisted of several different Asian cultures (Chinese, Filipino, Vietnamese)
Method: semi-structured interview
carried out semi-structured interviews conducted either face-to-face or over the Internet by interviewers of a similar cultural/linguistic background of participants
a random sample of participants was contacted to validate the data taken from the interviews the interviews measured the participants' level of acculturative stress, the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on this stress
Results: of the 2095 participants, 1433 were found to have acculturative stress (70%) a bilingual language preference contributes to lower acculturative stress because social networks can be constructed with family and friends --> wider support system .the preference for speaking only English is a predictor of high acculturative stress. negative treatment (xenophobia, prejudice, harassment, threats) contributes to higher acculturative stress. sharing similar values and beliefs as a family significantly contributes to lower acculturative stress*
illustrates the concept of acculturation according to Berry's model, thus suggesting that the process leads to psychological and cultural differences in members of the two cultures under investigation; the study hence demonstrates that integration into a foreign culture, meaning the interaction with the dominant culture while maintaining pesonal idenitty, the status of being bi-cultural reduces acculturative stress
Fagot (1978)
Aim: to observe parental reactions to behaviour that wasn't deemed appropriate for the child's gender, at least according to American culture at the time.
Participants: 24 families, 12 families with boys and 12 with girls.
Method: naturalistic observations
Toddlers and their parents were observed in their homes using an observation checklist. The families were all of American culture.
Results: parents reacted significantly more favorably to the child when the child was engaged in gender appropriate behavior and were more likely to give negative responses to "gender inappropriate" behaviors.
Fagot and her team followed up by interviewing the parents. The parents' perceptions of their interactions with their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers, indicating that this is not a conscious behaviour.
This study demonstrates enculturation as it shows parents directly teaching and instructing children about what is and isn't appropriate behaviour according to their culture's gender norms.
Greenfield (2006)
Aim: Understand how weaving is learned from one generation to the next in the Mayan culture.
Participants: 14 mother and daughter pairs/interaction.
Method: Longitudinal study, naturalistic observation, interview
Greenfield videotapes the observations of families working their back strap looms and conducted many interviews in Tzotzil, carried out for 40 years in order to observe the different generations the participants native language. The researcher was observing how the daughters learned how to weave from their mothers as it show that they have entered womanhood (in their culture). As participants observers, she lived among the families and dressed in traditional clothing. Greenfield worked with 14 mother-daughter pairs.
Results: Initially, there were only four striped clothing patterns, which identified wearers as male or female, adult or child and via direct instruction the daughters were taught to recreate these patterns exactly. When interviewed, the mothers denied consciously 'teaching' their daughters but were observed to continually assess progress, providing sensitive, verbal direction as needed, intervening less often as the girls improved to the point of weaving independently. It was concluded that this high level of adult-child interaction was in keeping with the cultural value of maintaining traditions
Hamilton & Gifford (1976)
Aim: To investigate illusory correlation based on group size as a key factor in the formation of stereotypes
Participants: 40 undergraduate students from America. Large group A and small group B
Method: Researchers asked participants to read descriptions about two made-up groups (Group A) and (Group B).
Ppts then read a series of statements. Each statement was about one individual in one of the two groups; the statement was either positive or negative. Each group had the same proportion of positive and negative comments. then asked to rank members of each group on a series of 20 traits. After completing this task, they were given a booklet in which they were given a statement and then asked whether the person who did this was from Group A or Group B. Finally, they were asked how many of the statements for each group had been "undesirable."
Results: participants attributed more desirable social behaviours (to members of Group A than to members of Group B. undesirable social behaviours were attributed more to minority Group B than to Group A.
illusory correlation may be based on group size: the smaller group, B, appears more distinctive than the larger group A so that any undesirable behaviours are linked more often to the minority group, B,
Rogers & Franz (1961)
Aim: to study and assess the attitudes of white European settlers towards Africans based on how long they have been in an African community
Participants: 500 White Europeans aged 20 and over, living in Zimbabwe for a period of fewer than five years to over forty years.
Method: Survey
containing sixty-six examples of laws and customs in which White Europeans and Africans were treated differently.
Four response choices were provided with 0 for it being very important to maintain the current system, 2 for a weak feeling of importance, 4 for a preference for discontinuing the law, and 6 for it being very important to discontinue the law.
Results: They found that the mean score of the sample was 2.45 illustrating that the majority of Europeans in Southern Rhodesia favoured the retention of the status quo. almost 70% fell below a mean score of 3.00. The Europeans who support the status quo least strongly were those who had been living in Southern Rhodesia for fewer than five years.
The scores indicate that new arrivals would modify their beliefs and attitudes in the direction of the norm of the European population.
Shih et al. (1999)
Aim: the effect of stereotypes having positive or negative effects on behavior
Participants: 46 Asian-American undergraduate students
Method: ppts were randomly allocated into three groups. One of the groups was called the Asian-identity condition, referring to a group where Asian Americans were asked questions about their heritage. The second condition was called the gender identity group, and were asked questions regarding their gender. And lastly the third conditions referred to participants who received meaningless questions. After those questionnaires the participants on all conditions were given a math test in which they had 20 minutes to complete.
Results: here was a significant difference in the % of correct answers in each condition:
Asian-identity: 54%
Control 49%
Gender-identity 43%
shows that positive stereotypes had a positive effect on performance
- asian identity being highlighted improved scores
- being a woman, with the stereotypes, poorer scores were recorded
Steele & Aronson (1995)
Aim :investigate whether stereotype threat would affect the performance on a test.
Participants: 76 black and white male and female undergraduate students
Method: Lab Experiment
Participants were given a standardized test that consisted of challenging multiple-choice questions used to measure verbal ability.
They were split into two conditions: half were told that the test would determine their intellectual ability while the other half were told that it would test their problem-solving skills
Results: stereotype threat condition, black participants became influenced by the stereotype threat relevant to their race (less intelligent), and therefore scored much lower than their white counterparts. Whereas in the non-stereotype threat condition, the results showed an almost equal performance by both black and white participants.
black participants performed poorly because they were made to believe that the test was diagnostic of their intellectual ability. This triggered spotlight anxiety meaning that the participants were in a feeling of distress due to their need not to confirm the stereotype of their in-group. This suggests that when an individual finds himself/herself under the stereotype threat condition they are more likely to underperform.
Abrams (1990)
Aim: determine if in-group identity would affect one's willingness to conform. It also looks at the role of SIT on the level of conformity.
Participants: Fifty undergraduate students
Method: independent measures design which included four groups and manipulated two different independent variables. Abrams carried out an experiment using the Asch line judgement task. University students taking Psychology were used as subjects. The confederates were either psychology students (in-group) ancient history students (out-group). Abrams also included the variation public versus private responses, in the experiment.
Results: Conformity was maximized in the in-group public condition, however, the in-group private and out-group private conditions did not differ significantly. indicate that social categorization can play a key role in one's decision to conform publicly.
Howard (2015)
Aim: investigate at what age, and to what extent, children imitate models depending on if the model is a linguistic in-group or out-group member.
Participants: 18 19-month old children and 18 3-year old children
Method: Each child met two bilingual people who entered the room and verbally introduced themselves to the child. One demonstrator spoke only English and the other spoke only Spanish for each participant. The two demonstrators only communicated with the child, never talking or making eye contact with each other throughout the experiment. both demonstrators greeted the child and introduced themselves in their assigned language. The two demonstrators then proceeded to show the child three toys. the demonstrators each showed one manner of acting on it to achieve some goal.
Results: The three year-old children, but not the 19-month old children, imitated the English speaking demonstrator significantly more than the Spanish speaking demonstrator. children selectively imitate the actions of an in-group-member more than they imitate the actions of an out-group member based on linguistic categorization.
Bandura (1961)
Aim: determine whether children would learn aggressive behaviour by imitating an adult model.
Participants: 3 - 5 year old children.
Method: were first evaluated to determine their level of aggression and was done by asking the experimenter and teacher to describe the children’s behaviour. three independent variables in this study: whether the children were exposed to violence or not, the gender of the child, and the gender of the model. The children then watched either a male or a female model either act aggressively to the Bobo, act passively (build blocks) or had no model . children were then individually invited into a room full of toys. After they saw all the toys, they were told that they were not allowed to play with them since they were for other children. This caused all of the children to feel frustrated.
Results: all of the children showed some level of aggression against the Bobo. However, the group that saw the aggressive model were the most aggressive. those that saw the control were second; and those what saw the passive model showed the least aggression. In addition, the boys were the most violent
Asch (1954)
Aim: investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.
Participants: 50 male students from USA
Method: Lab experiment
18 trials in total - showed participants a standard card and a comparison card and asked them to state which line was the same length as the one on the standard card. ( it was really obvious) 12 critical trials where the confederates stated the wrong letter, the niave participant gave their answer last or second to last. 6 neutral trials where one of the confederates gave the correct answer. Groups of 7-9 people.
Results: 75% conformed at least once. 25% didnt conform at all. 32% overall conformity rate. The majority can have an impact on the minority. Asch was then fascinated by the impact the minority can have over the majority.
Evaluate Norasakkunkit & Uchida (2014)
Limitations:
Correlational study: no cause & effect is established, lowering the validity as there might be some bidirectional ambiguity (which refers to not knowing what the real source of the issue allowing for some level of generalizability.is).
Bidirectional ambiguity: Does the feeling of alienation/isolation lead to hikikomori, or does being a hikikomori lead to feelings of alienation/isolation? (this is bidirectional ambiguity)
Demand characteristics as pps filled out a survey & may want to present themselves as more desirable (social desirability).
None of the pps were hikikomori, lowering the validity of the results.
No follow up study to see if any of the pps actually became hikikomori (especially the high risk pps).
Sampling bias: all pps were Japanese university students (YAVIS), lowering the generalisability of the results.
is hikikomori necessarily a culture-bound syndrome? Can it occur in other countries
Strenghts:
large sample size allowing for some level of generalizability.
evaluate lueck and wilson (2010)
strengths:
- provides detailed (rich qualitative) information
- provides insight for further research
- permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations
was ethical because there was informed consent, the participants were not deceived
- high ecological validity
does not exhibit gender bias as both men and women participated in the study
limitations:
- inability to generalize results to the wider population
- researcher bias
- difficult to replicate (but other studies, like that of Clive Wearing, display the same results confirm the findings)
as the questionnaire and tests do not ensure a 100% accurate reflection of the individual's lives and adjustment to the foreign culture (social desirability bias), the study does not investigate the roots/basis of the participants' reported responses, hence suggesting that the conclusions drawn from the results may be influenced by several external factors which were not considered (biological factors. this contributes to the low generalizability of the results
Evaluate Fagot (1978)
Limitations
sampling bias: The families all linked to the university, they were all white and all American.
small sample size: 24 families is a very small. The ability to generalize from this sample is limited.
The researchers found a short list of behaviors that result in the parents criticizing the child. However, the families knew that they were being watched. This means that they have demonstrated demand characteristics. In reality, there may be more or fewer behaviors that the parents would normally criticize when they are not being observed.
Strength:
high ecological validity due to natrualistic observation
two observers: can verify that the observations are not influenced by personal biases. There is high interrater reliability, meaning that they both recorded the same data during the observations.
method triangulation, interviews & observations. Increases the credibility of the findings.
evaluate greenfield (2006)
Strengths:
emic, it allowed for better understanding and observation, increasing its credibility.
longitudinal allowing the researcher to see the multiple generations and how this skill was encultured.
interviews were conducted in their native language allowing for full and free expression from participants
Limitations:
researcher bias: lived with them formed relationship with mother and daughter
limited to one culture: cant be generalised
Evaluation of Hamilton & Gifford (1976)
Strengths:
The study generated quantitative data, which is easy to compare and analyse, making the results reliable
Limitaiton:
The procedure does not fully reflect how people respond in real-life situations where they are exposed to minority groups which reduces ecological validity
The small sample size reduces the statistical power of the data which means that the results lack robustness
evaluate rogerz and franz (1961)
Strengths:
Sample was large and representative of the local community Can be generalized
Limitations:
cross sectional_ meaning that the researchers couldn’t determine if the attitudes of participants changed over time.
The participants also took part in the study through a survey which could mean that they showed a stronger opinion than they would in a authentic observation.
Participated through a survey
Evaluate Shih et al (1999)
Strengths:
use of specific participants was effective, gave both stereotype threat and boost in the same group
laboratory experiment, showed clear cause and effect relationship showing the relationship between the IV (stereotype brought to mind) and the DV (performance)
is replicable and has high ecological validity.
uses control conditions to have something to compare their findings to.
Limitations:
small sample size, and the results weren't very varied so its important to replicate it with a larger group
ethical limitation to consider is the problem which could appear from reinforcing stereotypes within the participants
does not address the many other factors that play a role in the formation of stereotypes
All participants in this study were of the same gender and race, and all were students at the same elite American university, so these results may not generalize to other racial, social and age groups
Evaluate Steel and Aronson (1995)
Strengths:
high ecological validity (tests are common)
Participant variability was controlled by the participants' SAT scores being collected to ensure that they are around the same level
Limitations
Deception was used because the participants were not aware about the true nature of the test. had distress
Sample is not representative; difficult to generalize findings.
salience about their racial identity and their levels of stress during the exam were not measured, so it is not possible to determine if they actually experienced stereotype threat
Evaluate Abrams et al (1990)
Strengths:
manipulation of the independent variable and the high level of control in the experiment allows us to see a causal relationship between group membership and the rate of conformity to an incorrect response.
Limitations:
highly artificial situation
low ecological validity and may not predict what would happen in a naturalistic situation.
deception used
made up of university students so cant be generalised and done in individualistic society
Evaluate Howard (2015)
Strengths:
Controlled experimental design: high internal validity
Limitations:
small sample size: unable to genrealise findings
low ecological validity
bias created by familiarity or attractiveness of the demonstrators.
Evaluate Bandura (1961)
Strengths:
establishment of cause-and-effect relationships
matched-pairs design ensures comparability between groups: high internal validity
high ecological validity
can be generalized across both genders due to diversity in sample
Limitations:
limiting the generalizability of the findings to other age groups or populations
subjective evaluations of children's aggression levels by experimenters and teachers introduces the potential for observer bias
exposing children to aggressive models, which raises ethical concerns regarding potential harm or distress to participants
Evaluate Asch (1954)
Strengths:
His methods have been adapted by other researchers.
It was easy to measure objectively because the task was unambiguous.
Its highly valid - Asch did variations and found that it wasnt the group size that mattered, its just whether anyone else conforms.
Limitations:
Lacks ecological validity.
It was expensive & time consuming.
Replications of the study have found lower conformity rates - makes the reliability questionable.
Note
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