IB History Japan (Paper 1)

Japanese nationalism pre-1900

- Japan was a strictly-segregated feudal society which lasted longer than in most

- European states as a result of seclusion.

1600-1867, Japan ruled by the Tokugawa clan.

- National unity and policy of seclusion

- Failure to keep foreign contact away led to the rise of opposition

- Many saw 'westernisation' as attempts to undermine traditional Japanese values.

Japanese nationalism pre-1900:

Treaties

- 'Unequal' treaties were signed with Britain, France and Russia leading to much nationalist resentment in Japan and elsewhere in Asia.

Japanese nationalism pre-1900:

Meiji restoration

- Meiji Restoration: (1868-1912) restoration of imperial rule in which the emperor once again exercised direct political power.

Japanese nationalism pre-1900:

Education

- Education in Japan was increasingly based on strong nationalistic and pro-imperial policies (racial superiority). Stressing how Japan's imperial families were descended from Sun Goddess.

Nationalism and imperialist expansion 1894-1914:

Russo-Japanese War

- 1904-05

- Russia had been leased the Liaodong Peninsula for 20 years and got the right to build the South Manchurian Railway (to have direct access to Port Arthur).

- Using the Boxer Rebellion (1900) as an excuse, Russia sent troops into Manchuria:

- Russian troops remained even after the defeat of the rebellion

- Japan signed Anglo-Japanese Alliance with Britain in 1902

- February 1904 Japan declared war on Russia

- Japan's naval forces proved superior

- 1905 Russia accepted US proposal to mediate a peace

Nationalism and imperialist expansion 1894-1914:

Treaty of Portsmouth

- USA 1905

- saw Japan get Russia to recognise its special interests in Korea.

- Japan received territorial gains (incl. leasing of the Liaodong Peninsula and the South Manchurian Railway- a direct link to Vladivostok port).

- Still, the Japanese felt this was not enough (protests)

- Japan promised not to interfere in the US 'protectorate' of the Philippines.

- Allowed Japan to consolidate its control over Korea and in 1910 it was formally annexed by Japan and made part of the Empire.

First World War and Japanese nationalism:

Main war aim

- Main war aim of Japanese government was to take over the German concessions in China

- It achieved these aims, thus building up a strong position in the Far East

First World War and Japanese nationalism:

Twenty-One Demands

- 1915

- Japan presented these 'Grievances' to China, demanding:

- Germany's concessions to be transferred to Japan

- Chinese recognition of special Japanese interests in various areas

- Japanese influence over aspects of China's political, financial and military affairs

- US opposed this as it was developing its own interest there, and also concerned about Japan's actions in Russia (72,000 troops vs. Bolsheviks)

- Japan was forced to withdraw these more contentious items

First World War and Japanese nationalism:

Results of 1919-20 peace settlements

- Despite fighting on the Allied side and helping Britain protect its imperial possessions in Asia from Germany, Japan was largely disappointed with its gains from the 1919-20 peace settlements.

- Control of the German concessions in the Shandong Peninsula was approved

- Not given outright ownership of Germany's former Pacific colonies

- Nationalists felt Japan had not been fairly treated

First World War and Japanese nationalism:

League of Nations

- Victorious powers established the League of Nations:

- Britain and France leading members, USA never joined, Germany and Russia later

allowed to join.

- Attempts at disarmament failed and from 1929, with the onset of the Great Depression, many countries began to adopt more aggressive foreign policies.

- Failed to maintain collective security 1929-39.

- Conference of Ambassadors (Britain, France, Italy, Japan) made decisions independently of the League - increasingly undermining it.

First World War and Japanese nationalism:

Paris Peace conference

- In 1919, at the Paris Peace Conferences, Japan proposed a 'Racial Equality' clause

- Mainly an attempt to ensure Japan would be treated as a great power and thus have

the same rights as other members to establish an overseas empire

- The clause was blocked by both the US and Britain

- Refusal widely reported in Japanese media and heavily increased nationalist feelings

- Turning Japan away from close cooperation with the Western powers

Japanese Militarism:

Within society

- Military received the highest respect in Japanese society

- As a result of the 'samurai legacy' of pre-1868 Japan

- Early 1900s onwards loyalty to the emperor and self-sacrifice were given much greater

prominence than before

- Bushido code adapted and developed by military & civilian nationalists to obtain

the general public's support for their expansionist aims

- Idea of a 'purifying death' led to kamikaze suicide missions in WW2

Japanese Militarism:

During the 1920s

- Militarism increased in the 1920s, especially after Great Depression

- Idea of territorial expansion as a way of solving Japan's problems and making it a

regional and even world power.

- View that overpopulation and lack of sufficient raw materials were the main cause of Japan's difficulties.

- Both liberal and radical professors pointed to the worldwide restrictions on Japanese immigration and goods

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Toyama Mitsuru

main inspiration for right-wing nationalists who favoured an expansionist policy

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Great Kanto Earthquake

- In 1923, the Great Kanto Earthquake hit Japan and further reinforced right-wing nationalist feelings.

- In Tokyo, the earthquake caused a massive fire with over 100,000 deaths

- Rumours about Koreans starting the fire led to violent mob attacks

- Led to the attempted assassination of Hirohito (imperial regent)

- Kokuhonsha (National Foundation Society) founded in 1924 to strengthen the 'national spirit'.

- An extreme nationalist movement, partly inspired by Mussolini's fascism, aiming to destroy liberalism, individualism and party politics.

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Showa era

- 1926-89

- when the Taisho emperor died and was succeeded by Hirohito, Japan saw a rapid shift away from democracy and towards greater ultra-nationalism and militarism.

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Tanaka Giichi

- In 1927 Tanaka Giichi became prime minister

- Earlier moves towards democracy and liberalism came to an end, and replaced by

increasing militarism and the road to war.

- Beginning of what is known as 'Showa fascism'

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Washington Naval Conferences

- 1921-22

- agreed naval arms limitations

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

London Naval Conference

- 1930

- Meeting to negotiate reductions in other warships. Japan agreed to:

- 10:10:6 (US:GB:JP) ratio in heavy cruisers

- 10:10:7 ratio in destroyers

- Japan's naval leaders were opposed to the limitations set on heavy cruisers,

wanting the same ratio as for destroyers

- Those who had signed the agreements became assassination targets

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

The Great Depression

- 1929

- Like German nationalists after WW1 (Lebensraum), Japan's nationalists increasingly came to believe that their country needed to end its dependence on Western powers and instead create its own self-sufficient empire

- Nationalist ideology on its own was not enough for another World War:

i. Impact of Great Depression

ii. Military leaders increasingly adopting expansionist views

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Kwantung Army

- Kwantung Army: extremely nationalistic, strongly advocated an expansionist foreign policy.

- Increasingly prepared to ignore instructions from above and use military strength to dominate and overthrow Japan's civilian governments.

- Feared the Chinese nationalists, led by Chiang Kai-shek, who might create a unified China to resist Japanese incursion.

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Young officers response

- Young army officers began to organise nationalistic political circles as a result of:

- Their opposition to the disarmament policies of the Washington Conferences

- Their anger of the lack of help given to poor peasants during the Depression, while

politicians/industrialists lived in luxury in the cities

- Motive for assassination of prime minister Inukai in 1932

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Sakurakai (Cherry Blossom Society)

- formed to overthrow the civilian government, and establish a military dictatorship.

- Worried that the army would be next, after reductions to the navy

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Civilian ultra-nationalists

- Civilian ultra-nationalists also favoured a totalitarian military government:

- Increasingly opposed to all aspects associated with the West- Liberalism and democracy as opposed to their version of 'Japanism'

Developments in the 1920s and 1930s:

Fundamentals of Our National Policy

- In 1937, due to protests, the government was forced to issue the Fundamentals of Our National Policy (reasserting the Emperor's divine origin):

- Stressed loyalty, patriotism and the martial spirit

- Stated that all undesirable thought and movements were caused by the West

Economic Issues: (1868-1929)

The Meiji Restoration

- Japan underwent extensive industrialisation

- policy of 'Enrich the country, strengthen the military'

- Japan's economy was rapidly modernised after 1868, but:

- It lacked sufficient raw materials

- There was insufficient land for its growing population

- Early 1927 banking crisis; many went bankrupt

- As a result, financial control was concentrated in the hands of bigger banks/industries to increase their monopolistic positions.

- Military spending was increased and economic exploitation of its colonies was stepped up

Economic Issues: (1868-1929)

Impact of Great Depression

- Suffered badly due to a lack of raw materials

- Japanese economy largely depended on exports

- Silk industry (main export) was heavily hit as sales of the luxury product fell.

- Rice farmers also amongst those badly affected

- Countries reduced their imports and imposed tariffs on foreign goods

- Japan's population was increasing at 1 million/year

- Most land was agriculturally limited and so increasing poverty was soon accompanied by inadequate food supplies.

- Racist immigration laws by US and others prevented the emigration of poor Japanese suffering from the effects of the Depression

- Government responded with economic retrenchment (cutting expenditure)

- This proved inadequate, leading to increased left-wing opposition

Economic Issues: (1868-1929)

The Depression- militarism and nationalism

- Increasing discontent and hostility of right-wing militarists for expansionist policies to

replace the existing policy of international cooperation.

- Japan looked to northern China as the most obvious target for increasing its empire.

- Impact of the Depression was arguably the main factor in deteriorating relations

between the major world states

- Compared to the 1920s, Japanese statesmen in the 1930s were only prepared to operate within the Western international system as long as Japan was treated as an equal.

- Japanese goods were discriminated against via tariffs and its access to the markets and raw materials equally restricted.

- Growing influence of nationalists and militarists over Japanese foreign policy who pushed for expansion which, they believed, was the only way to solve its problems.

Political Issues: (after 1918)

Parliamentary democracy

- Although Japan was a parliamentary state, real power lay with:

- the emperor, military leaders and owners of big industrial/banking firms

- After WW1 and the end of the Meiji emperor's reign, there followed almost a decade of peaceful civilian and parliamentary government (Taisho era).

- However, Japan's expansionist ambitions remained

Political Issues: (after 1918)

Influence of the zaibatsu

- Zaibatsu: large industrial companies which became increasingly powerful and

influential in the interwar period.

- Many had close ties to army officers who saw military conquest as Japanese development and a way to solve its economic problems.

- These became increasingly dominant in the 1920s and were able to influence Japan's

national and foreign policies

Political Issues: (after 1918)

Opposition to liberalism and democracy

- Many right-wing nationalists believed the severe economic crisis justified attempts to

remove political leaders whose peaceful foreign policies blocked military expansion.

- Government complied with mounting right-wing nationalist pressure in 1935 and

ended Japan's acceptance of the Washington and London naval agreements.

Political Issues: (after 1918)

Political influence of the military

- Japanese army used its prestigious position to follow its own policies, increasingly

independently from civilian governments which were often relatively weak.

- Moves towards autarky and trying to guarantee a supply of raw materials

- Manchuria (rich in raw materials + fertile land) offered a solution

Political Issues: (after 1918)

Japan and the western states:

- Britain, France and Netherlands already had colonies in Asia

- USA had been trying to expand its influence in the Pacific since the mid-19th century

- US adopted the 'Open Door' policy for China

- Washington Naval Conferences (1921-22) were organised due to the growing concern that the rapidly-expanding Japanese navy posed.

- Four-Power Act & Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty: attempted to limit the possibility of a naval arms race

- Ratio of British, US and Japanese battleships in the Pacific should be 5:5:3

Manchuria:

Appeal of Manchuria

- As well as offering up raw materials, Manchuria possessed people who could buy Japanese goods and function as a source of cheap labour.

- This could already be seen in the vast differences in average monthly salaries of employees of the South Manchurian Railway.

- 1926: salaries of Japanese regular employees were 7.6 times higher

Manchuria:

The Mukden Incident

- Sep 1931

- First step in establishing control over the Chinese province was to 'stage' an attack on

part of the South Manchurian Railway (SMR) in Mukden and then blame it on Chinese.

- The prime minister at the time (Wakatsuki) ordered the Kwantung Army not to go into

areas beyond the SMR.

- But he was told by the Army General Staff that the civilian government had no

right to intervene.

Manchuria:

Formation of Manchukuo

- Kwantung army refused to comply with the League's ruling to withdraw its troops back

to SMR territory and moved north into Amur Province.

- Clashes between Chinese and Japanese troops ensued in Shanghai

- Japan responded by bombing a heavily-populated civilian area

- Japanese army divisions also drove all Chinese troops from Shanghai

- 5 May, both sides signed the Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement

- Japan forced China to make Shanghai a demilitarised zone.

- Aroused increasingly nationalistic feelings in Japan.

- Public support for Army's decision in 1932 to transform Manchuria into a puppet state - Manchukuo

The road to Sino Japanese war

- June 1937, Konoe Fumimaro became the new prime minister.

- He had been expressing expansionist views and was prepared to abandon the

policy of international cooperation.

- He was convinced Japan had to adopt a policy for its own 'autonomous bloc'.

- Supporting the idea of an 'Asiatic Monroe Doctrine'

- In September 1936, prime minister Koki Hirota signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany. Italy joined in 1937 and so Japan aligned itself with the fascist powers.

Second Sino-Japanese War begins:

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

- 7 July 1937, Japanese troops provoked a relatively minor clash between themselves

and local Chinese forces at the Marco Polo Bridge, a railway junction outside Beijing.

- This became the trigger for the war.

- Claiming the Chinese had fired on them, the Japanese launched an attack on several Chinese army bases around Beijing.

- They met stiff resistance at the Marco Polo Bridge and Japan's government began negotiations.

- Soon, however the government gave into the military hardliners and Japan sent in more troops.

- Nationalism and popular patriotic support swept the nation as Japanese people called for China to be punished for its actions.

- In December Japanese forces captured the capital of China, Nanjing.

Second Sino-Japanese War begins:

The 'Rape of Nanjing'

- The commanding Japanese general had made no attempt to control the behaviour of

his troops in Nanjing.

- In part, this was undoubtedly the result of a sense of racial superiority

- Many cases of rape, death for the slightest resistance. Many women were killed and their bodies mutilated.

- 20,000 cases of rape occurred in the first month of occupation.

The Sino-Japanese war continues

- By the end of 1937, Japanese forces had control over most of North China.

- Over 1 million Japanese troops in China

- Japan controlled main cities and lines of communication

- War of attrition ensued, while the countryside stayed mostly in Chinese hands.

- By December 1941, Japan had almost 50% of its army in China.

- The decision to attack the US naval base at Pearl Harbour increased problems for Japan's armed forces in China, easing the pressure on Chiang's forces.

Military factions and foreign policy: (1937-40)

Rival factions in the Japanese army

- Imperial Way Faction: ultra-nationalists who believed in the supremacy of Japanese soldiers and favouring violent action to overturn existing systems.

- Control Faction: did not favour individual acts of political violence and instead

wanted to modernise the Japanese army ready for modern war.

Military factions and foreign policy: (1937-40)

Fundamental Principles of National Policy

- Hirota's government affirmed the need to consolidate Japan's position in East Asia,

and to advance into the South Sea region.

- more moderate policy towards China, but a stronger stand against Russia.

- Industrial-financial zaibatsu were ready to cooperate with the militarists in pursuing an expansionist imperialist foreign policy.

- Heavy industries linked to strategic war industries were built up (e.g. production of the Zero fighter plane).

- Their links to the military ensured they had access to vital raw materials.

Military factions and foreign policy: (1937-40)

Growing influence of the US

- Japanese resentment at growing US influence in Asia and the Pacific.

- Policy based on taking charge of 'less-developed' non-white people and nations, in order to 'civilise' them (Roosevelt).

Military factions and foreign policy: (1937-40)

Japan and the Soviet Union

- Japan realised that any attempted advances into Soviet territory would prove much

more difficult than previously thought.

- Battle of Khalkin-Gol in August 1939, USSR inflicted a crushing defeat on

Japanese forces and a ceasefire was called.

- Expansion in southeast Asia and the Pacific was an easier option.

The Tripartite Pact: (Sep 1940)

Pact of Steel

- May 1939: Pact of Steel between the three powers.

- August 1940, Japan's plans for a 'Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere' publicly announced.

The Tripartite Pact: (Sep 1940)

Hakko ichiu principles

- Hakko ichiu principles endorsed ('eight corners of the world under one roof')

Calling for the establishment of a 'New Order' in Greater East Asia, emphasis was

placed on building up the armed forces, trying to conclude the war against China and greater economic planning.

The Tripartite Pact: (Sep 1940)

Response to Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

- Japan had been angered by the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact in August 1939 and had initially withdrawn from the Anti-Comintern Pact.

- Relations soon began to improve again and the Tripartite Pact was signed in September 1940.

- Confirmed the three countries' intentions to establish 'new orders' in their respective regions.

- Served as a defensive military alliance and as a warning to the US.

- The pact did not include the provision that its members would actually declare war on the attacking country.

The Tripartite Pact: (Sep 1940)

Results

- Japan hoped Britain's problems in Europe would give it a free hand in Asia, while Germany saw Japanese expansion in Asia as a way of weakening Britain and the US.

- After Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour December 1941, Germany and Italy both declared war on the US.

- agreed that none would sign a separate peace with the US.

Invasion of Indo-china: (Sep 1940)

Another reason for attack on Pearl harbour

- Another reason for the attack on Pearl Harbour, was Japan's decision to move into French Indo-china following France's defeat to Germany in June 1940.

- Part of Second Sino-Japanese war aimed at stopping Nationalist government in China from importing arms and fuel along the Sino-Indo-China Railway.

- US imposed economic sanctions on Japan (reducing exports)

Invasion of Indo-china: (Sep 1940)

End of Japanese-Soviet Neutrality Pact

- In April 1941, the Japanese concluded the Japanese-Soviet Neutrality Pact.

- Ended the Soviet-Japanese Border War.

- Allowed Japan to consider implementing the decisions of the July 1941 Conference by striking south.

- Japan knew it would not be wise to take on the USSR.

- Hitler launched the invasion of the Soviet Union in late June 1941.

- Japan concluded that there was no longer any Soviet threat to Manchuria.

- July 1941, a large Japanese army moved into southern Indo-china.

Attack on Pearl Harbour: (December 1941)

Reasons

- As a result of the invasion of Indo-china, the US imposed a total ban on vital supplies (e.g. oil, iron, aircraft) to Japan and freezing all Japanese assets in the US.

- Helped push Japan into deciding to extend its 'Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere' to have access to supplies of oil and rubber in other territories.

Attack on Pearl Harbour: (December 1941)

Events

- Japan's government decided it was necessary to first knock out the USA's pacific fleet which was currently being reinforced (Led to attack on Pearl Harbour).

- This and the simultaneous Japanese attacks on British and Dutch colonies formed a part of the 'Greater East Asia War'.

Attack on Pearl Harbour: (December 1941)

Results

- Japanese assumed that, after suffering a rapid knock-out blow, the US would agree to accept further Japanese expansion in southeast Asia.

- However, US was only temporarily inconvenienced by the attack.

- Soon, the US turned Japan's 'Greater East Asia War' into one of attrition

- Already under the strain of the Depression and its war with China, Japan's economy could not sustain this conflict.

League of Nations & the Lytton Report:

Leagues response to Mukden incident

- Following the Mukden Incident, China appealed to the League of Nations. It hoped to invoke the principle of collective security and thus get action taken against Japan.

- The League acted cautiously

- While the Japanese seemed to be cooperating with the League, the army continued to expand its influence over

- Manchuria in defiance of a request from the League that Japanese troops should withdraw to the railway zone

- A commission led by Lord Lytton was sent to Manchuria. It took several months to arrive

and then several months to complete its report on the situation, during which time the Kwantung army was able to continue expanding throughout Manchuria.

The Lytton report

- Japan had special interests in Manchuria, but the use of force was unacceptable

- Japan should give up the territory and withdraw its forces

- Manchukuo was not an independent state and could not be recognised as such

- Manchuria should become independent but under Chinese sovereignty

League of Nations & the Lytton Report:

Japan's response

- Japan did not accept the report and withdrew from the League in March 1933.

- No further action was taken against Japan (fear of communism meant Japan was viewed

as an ally in containing communist Russia in the Far East)

- The failure to act meant Japan was able to continue with its expansion and may have

contributed to Mussolini's decision to invade Abyssinia in 1935

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

USA's main foreign policy 1930's

USA's main foreign policy concern in the 1930s was to stay out of international crises and to pursue its own interests - "isolationism".

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

US opinion on Japan's expansion

- Although it was concerned by Japan's actions which were a violation of Chinese territorial integrity and also of the "open door" policy, the US took minimal action.

- US interests and security were not directly threatened by the Manchurian incident and the focus was on the economic crisis.

- The US lacked a credible naval force in the Pacific as Congress had refused to bring naval strength up to the Washington Treaty and London Treaty Limits

- US did not want to jeopardise trade and investment interests in Japan

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Stimson Doctrine

- US issued the Stimson Doctrine in January 1932 which declared that the USA would not recognise any agreement that violated China's territorial or administrative integrity or that went against the open-door policy or the Kellogg-Briand Pact.

- Allowed President Hoover to uphold international law but also to avoid committing to economic sanctions

- Roosevelt continued with the same limited response to Japan. He was intent on resolving the economic crisis, and outside Hitler's policies took most of USA's attention

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Increasing Japanese threat to US

- America's hesitant approach continued after 1937, although Japan's military and economic actions were now becoming a threat to the USA.

- Japan's ambitious naval building programme, launched in 1936, upset the balance of power in the Pacific.

- Economic penetration into North and Central-China threatened US interests in those regions and the whole concept of the "open door" policy.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Neutrality Acts

- Financial aid was given to China. However, this was not political intervention.

- US rejected 10 British appeals to make a show of naval strength.

- Roosevelt was limited by several laws, called the Neutrality Acts which enforced the

USA's isolationist stance by preventing US involvement in conflicts that did not specifically involve the USA.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

the Panay

- A US gunboat, the Panay, was escorting three small oil tankers on the Yangtze river when it was bombed and sunk by a Japanese aircraft in December 1937.

- Japanese quickly apologised and offered compensation, Americans relieved conflict had been avoided.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Economic sanctions

- Not only did the USA not impose economic sanctions, its trade with Japan until 1939 played a key role in supporting Japan's war effort against China.

- Bought silk and was a major supplier of oil, scrap iron and automobile parts.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Increased aggressive policy towards Japan

- During 1938, USA began to carry out more aggressive policy towards Japan.

- Roosevelt did not share the sentiments of the isolationists regarding the Neutrality Acts

which treated aggressor and victim alike.

- In 1938 he chose to lend active support to the nationalists, starting with an oil loan of

$25 million.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

"new order in East Asia"

- Japan announcing it wished to create a "new order in East Asia" was the turning point.

- There was also growing concern in the US that Chiang might join them in this new order.

- Another factor was the possibility that if the USA did not give enough aid to Chiang, the Soviets might increase their support for the Nationalists.

- January 1939 "moral embargo" on planes and aviation

- February 1939 credit to Japan stopped and a long-standing trade agreement suspended

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Impact of German victories

- German victories in the spring and summer of 190 had encouraged Japanese in their expansionist policies.

- September 1940, Japan entered into the Tripartite Pact with the European fascist powers Germany and Italy, convincing many Americans that the war in Europe and the war in Asia were the same war.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

US intervention in China (1940-41)

Throughout 1940 and 1941, as Japan advanced, the USA gave millions of dollars of aid to China as well as piling economic pressure on Japan.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

US response to Japan moving South

- In July 1941, when Japan moved south rather than moving north to attack the Soviets, the

USA responded by freezing all Japanese assets.

- A total trade embargo was imposed in November (Britain and Netherlands also)

- Japan believed the Western powers were attempting to encircle Japan and destroy its

"rightful place" in the world.

- Japan could not afford its oil reserves to run out and negotiations ensued. These,

however, failed as the USA insisted Japan withdraw from China.

Increasing tension between US and Japan:

Attack on Pearl Harbour

The attack on Pearl Harbour united the American people for a war against Japan.

- Congress agreed to Roosevelt's request for a Declaration of War on 8 December.