AICE PE REVIEW

Joints, movements and muscles

1.1

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones (SHOULDER)

ball and socket joint

articulating bones - humerus and scalpula

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones (ELBOW)

hinge joint

Articulating bones - humerus, radius and ulna

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones (Wrist )

Condyloid Joint

Articulating bones-radius and carpals

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones ( radio lunar)

Pivot joint

Articulating bones-radius nd ulna

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones (Hip)

Ball and socket joint

Articulating bones-femur and pelvis

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones (knee)

hinge joint

Articulating bones- femur, and tibia

the type of synovial joint and articulating bones (Ankle)

Hinge joint

Articulating bones-tibia, fibula and talus

Joints, types of movements, and, main agonist

Shoulder flexion

Main agonist-anterior deltoid

Shoulder extension

Main agonist-posterior deltoid

Shoulder abduction

Main agonist- Medial deltoid

Shoulder adduction

Main agonist-latissimus dorsi

Shoulder horizontal flexion

Main agonist-pectoralis major

Shoulder horizontal extension

Main agonist-posterior deltoid

Elbow flexion

Main agonist-biceps brachii

Elbow extension

Main agonist-triceps brachii

Wrist flexion

main agonist-wrist flexors

Wrist extension

Main agonist-wrist extensors

radioulnar pronation

Main agonist-pronator teres

radioulnar supination

Main agonist-supinator

Hip flexion

illiopsoas

Hip extension

Main agonist- Gluteus maximus

Hip abduction

Main agonist- gluteus medius

Hip abduction

Main agonist- adductor longus

Knee flexion

Main agonist- bicep femoris

Knee extension

Main agonist- rectus femoris

Ankle dorsiflexion

Main agonist-tibial anterior

Ankle plantar flexion

Main agonist- gastrocnemius

Agonist

a muscle responsible for creating movement at a joint; the prime mover

Antagonist

a muscle that opposes the agonist providing a resistance for co-ordinated movement

Fixator

a muscle that stabilizes one part of a body while another causes movement

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

1.3

Concentric

muscular contraction which shortens while producing tension

Eccentric

muscular contraction which lengthens while producing tension

Isometric

muscular contraction which stays the same length while producing tension

Isotonic Contraction

muscular contraction which changes length during its contraction

Two Ways that Isotonic Contractions Occur- concentric and eccentric

MUSCLE FIBRE TYPES

1.4

Slow Oxidative (SO) Muscle Fibres:

• Color: Dark red due to high myoglobin

• Mitochondria: Many mitochondria, which are the powerhouses of the cell.

• Capillaries: Abundant capillaries, ensuring a good oxygen supply.

Function:

• Endurance: These fibers are designed for prolonged activities.

• Energy Use: They use oxygen to generate energy (ATP) through a process called aerobic respiration.

• Speed: They contract slowly but are highly resistant to fatigue

Example: Marathon running. SO fibers help maintain long-duration, steady effort.

Fast Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG) Muscle Fibres:

Fast Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG) Muscle Fibres:

Structure:

- Color: Red to pink (moderate myoglobin).

- Mitochondria: Moderate number.

- Capillaries: Good supply.

Function:

- Versatility: Uses both aerobic and anaerobic energy.

- Speed and Endurance: Faster contractions, moderate fatigue resistance.

. Fast Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG) Fibres:

- Example: 800-meter running. FOG fibers balance speed and endurance.

Fast Glycolytic (FG) Muscle Fibres

Fast Glycolytic (FG) Muscle Fibres:

Structure:

• Color: White (low myoglobin).

• Mitochondria: Few.

• Capillaries: Few.

Function:

• Power: For short, intense activities.

• Energy: Uses anaerobic respiration (quick energy, fast fatigue).

• Speed: Very fast contraction, quickly tires.

Example: 100-meter sprint. FG fibers provide rapid, powerful bursts of speed.

BIOMECHANICS

Part 2

Linear motion

• Straight Line: Motion in a perfectly straight path.

• Curved Line: Motion in a curved path but still considered linear as long as all parts of the body move uniformly.

• External Force: Linear motion is created when an external force acts through the center of mass of the body, causing it to move without rotating.

Describing and Calculating Key Terms

Distance

• Definition: The total path length covered by a moving object, regardless of direction.

• Calculation: Sum of all lengths traveled.

• Comparison: Distance is always positive and scalar

Displacement

• Definition: The straight-line distance from the starting point to the ending point, including direction.

• Calculation: Difference in position (final position - initial position).

• Comparison: Displacement can be positive, negative, or zero and is a vector quantity.

Speed

• Definition: The rate at which an object covers distance.

• Calculation: Speed = Distance / Time.

• Comparison: Scalar quantity, no direction involved.

Velocity

• Definition: The rate at which an object changes its position, including direction.

• Calculation: Velocity = Displacement / Time.

• Comparison: Vector quantity, includes direction.

Acceleration

• Definition: The rate at which velocity changes over time.

• Calculation: Acceleration = (Final Velocity - Initial Velocity) / Time.

• Comparison: Vector quantity, can be positive (speeding up) or negative (slowing down).

Momentum

• Definition: The quantity of motion an object has, dependent on mass and velocity.

• Calculation: Momentum = Mass x Velocity.

• Comparison: Vector quantity, direction of momentum is the same as direction of velocity

Scalar quantities

• Definition: Quantities that have only magnitude (size or amount) and no direction.

• Examples: Distance, speed, mass, time, temperature.

Vector quantities

• Definition: Quantities that have both magnitude and direction.

• Examples: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force.

Graphs of Linear Motion

Distance graph

• Slope represents speed.

• A steeper slope indicates a higher speed.

• A flat line indicates no motion

Displacement graph

• Slope represents velocity.

• Positive slope indicates movement in the positive direction.

• Negative slope indicates movement in the negative direction.

• A flat line indicates no change in position (no motion).

Speed graph

• Shows how speed changes over time.

• A horizontal line indicates constant speed.

• An upward slope indicates increasing speed (acceleration).

• A downward slope indicates decreasing speed (deceleration).

Velocity

• Shows how velocity changes over time.

• A horizontal line indicates constant velocity.

• An upward slope indicates positive acceleration.

• A downward slope indicates negative acceleration.

• Area under the curve represents displacement.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

2.2

Force

Definition: A push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with another object.

Effect: can cause an object to start moving, stop moving, change direction, or alter its speed

Mass

Definition: The amount of matter in an object, typically measured in kilograms (kg).

Effect: a measure of an object's resistance to acceleration when a force is applied

Weight

Definition: The force exerted by gravity on an object's mass.

Calculation: Weight = Mass x Gravitational acceleration (W = mg).

Effect: Weight pulls objects toward the center of the Earth.

Inertia

Definition: The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion.

Effect: Objects with more mass have greater inertia and require more force to change their motion.

Acceleration

Definition: The rate at which an object's velocity changes over time.

Calculation: Acceleration = Change in Velocity / Time (a = Δv / t).

Effect: Acceleration occurs when a force is applied to an object.

Forces Acting During Physical Activity

Gravitational Force (Weight)

Description: The downward force exerted by gravity on an object.

Effect: Keeps objects grounded and affects the motion of objects in free fall.

Air Resistance:

Description: The force acting opposite to the relative motion of an object moving through the air.

Effect: Slows down objects moving through the air, such as a runner or a ball

Friction

Description: The force that opposes the motion of two surfaces sliding past each other.

Effect: Provides the necessary grip for walking or running and affects the motion of objects on surfaces.

Reaction Force

Description: The force exerted by a surface as an equal and opposite response to an applied force.

Effect: Supports the weight of objects and is essential for walking, jumping, and other activities.

Action / Muscular Force

Description: The force produced by muscle contractions.

Effect: Enables movement and generates the necessary force for physical activities

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Balanced Forces: When the forces acting on an object are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, resulting in no change in motion.

Unbalanced Forces: When the forces acting on an object are not equal, causing a change in the object's motion (acceleration).

Newton's First Law: Law of Inertia

Statement: An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Example: A soccer ball will not move until a player kicks it (overcoming inertia).

Newton's Second Law: Law of Acceleration

Statement: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to its mass (F = ma).

Example: Pushing a light shopping cart results in faster acceleration compared to pushing a heavy one with the same force.

Newton's Third Law: Law of Reaction

Statement: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Example: When a swimmer pushes against the water, the water pushes back with equal force, propelling the swimmer forward.

ANGULAR MOTION

2.3

Angular motion (definition)

Movement of a body in a circular path around an axis of rotation.

Cause: Created by an external force that acts outside the center of mass, causing the body to rotate

Biomechanical Quantities of Rotational Movement

Angular Momentum (L):

Definition: The quantity of rotation of a body, dependent on its moment of inertia and angular velocity.

Formula: L=IωL=Iω

Units: kg⋅m2/skg⋅m2/s

Moment of Inertia (I)

Definition: The resistance of a body to change in its rotational motion, depending on its mass and the distribution of that mass relative to the axis of rotation.

Formula: I=∑mr^2 (where mm is mass and rr is the distance from the axis).

Units: kg⋅m2kg⋅m2

Angular Velocity (ω)

• Definition: The rate of change of angular position of a rotating body.

• Formula: ω=Δθ/Δt​ (where Δθis the change in angular position and Δt is the time interval).

• Units: Radians per second (rad/s)

Equation Linking Angular Momentum, Moment of Inertia, and Angular Velocity

Formula: L=Iω

This equation shows that angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity.

Relationship Between Angular Momentum, Moment of Inertia, and Angular Velocity

When a skater pulls their arms in, they reduce their moment of inertia (I). Since angular momentum (L) is conserved, their angular velocity (ω) must increase to keep LL constant.

Factors Affecting Moment of Inertia

Mass of Body

Effect: Greater mass increases the moment of inertia.

Example: A heavier gymnast has a larger moment of inertia compared to a lighter one if their body shapes and rotations are similar.

Distribution of Mass from Axis of Rotation

Effect: The farther the mass is from the axis, the greater the moment of inertia.

Example: A figure skater with arms extended has a greater moment of inertia than when their arms are close to their body

Principle of Conservation of Angular Momentum

In the absence of external torques, the total angular momentum of a system remains constant."

Imagine you're spinning in a chair. If no one pushes you or stops you (no outside forces or torques), how fast you're spinning (your angular momentum) won't change.

Factors Affecting Horizontal Displacement

2.4

Height of Release:

Explanation: The higher the release point, the longer the object can stay in the air, increasing horizontal displacement.

Example: A basketball shot taken from a higher jump reaches farther.

Speed of Release

Explanation: The faster the object is released, the greater the horizontal component of its velocity, leading to a longer flight.

Example: A fast-thrown baseball travels farther than a slow one.

Angle of Release

Explanation: The optimal angle for maximum horizontal displacement is typically around 45 degrees, balancing the horizontal and vertical components.

Example: A javelin thrown at a 45-degree angle covers more distance than one thrown at 20 degrees or 70 degrees.

Properties of Bodies and Objects

2.5

Centre of Mass

the point in an object where all of its mass is considered to be concentrated. It's the balance point of the object

Factors Affecting Position of the Centre of Mass

Shape and Distribution of Mass

The shape of an object and how its mass is spread out affect where the centre of mass is located.

Example: A hammer has its centre of mass closer to the heavy head than the handle.

Orientation

Changing the position or orientation of an object can shift its centre of mass.

Example: When a gymnast moves into a pike position, their centre of mass shifts closer to their hips.

Added Mass

Adding mass to an object, especially asymmetrically, changes its centre of mass.

Example: Wearing a backpack moves your centre of mass backward.

Stability

the ability of a body to maintain or return to a position of equilibrium when acted upon by forces.

Area of the Base of Support: ( affecting stability)

Definition: The area bounded by parts of the body in contact with the ground.

Effect: Larger base of support increases stability.

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

3.1 structure and function of the heart

Atria (Left and Right)

Structure: Upper chambers of the heart.

Function: Receive blood coming into the heart. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body, and the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.

Ventricles (Left and Right)

Structure: Lower chambers of the heart.

Function: Pump blood out of the heart. The right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs, and the left ventricle sends oxygenated blood to the body.