Prosocial Behavior and Aggression in Social Contexts

Prosocial behavior

Behavior for helping others.

Motives for prosocial behavior

Reasons why people help others.

Empathy-altruism

Helping others due to the capacity to empathize with their emotional state.

Negative state relief

Helping people to relieve negative emotions.

Empathetic joy

Feeling good about doing something positive for someone.

Competitive altruism

Helping others to boost one's own status and reputation.

Kin selection

The evolutionary perspective that suggests we are more likely to help those we are closely related to.

Defensive helping

Helping others in the ingroup when one's own status is threatened.

Empathy

The capacity to experience others' emotional states and feel sympathetic toward them.

Emotional empathy

Involves sharing the feelings and emotions of others.

Empathetic accuracy

Involves perceiving others' thoughts and feelings accurately.

Empathetic concern

Involves feelings of concern for another's well-being.

Mirror neurons

Specialized areas of the brain that allow us to feel what others are feeling.

Factors that encourage empathy

Positive affect, need for affiliation, and social desirability.

Factors that discourage empathy

Others suffering when it is too painful and the cost of experiencing empathy.

Empathy-altruism hypothesis

The suggestion that some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need.

Negative state relief model

The idea that people help to relieve their own negative emotions.

Chances of survival increase indirectly

Helping is reciprocated; we help others, and others help us.

Responding to an emergency

The process of helping when in a state of crisis.

Bystander effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Diffusion of responsibility

The underlying principle that when more people are around, individuals think someone else will help.

Steps for noticing and responding to emergency

1. Notice something unusual. 2. Interpret the event as an emergency. 3. Accept responsibility for helping. 4. Decide you have the skills needed to help. 5. Decide to actually help.

Similarity

Increases empathetic concern and understanding of what others are experiencing.

Prosocial models

If there's one helpful bystander, there is higher likelihood of us helping.

Prosocial video games

Prime cognitive frameworks related to helping others.

Aggressive game impact

Playing aggressive game, higher likelihood to prime aggressive behavior.

Repeated exposure to prosocial games

More of these games you play, higher likelihood of displaying that behavior.

Reduce focus on self

Awe shifts attention, reducing focus on self and increasing likelihood to help.

Social class

Low SES → feel lack of control, higher need for affiliation.

Social exclusion

Undermines self-esteem, feelings of isolation, low life satisfaction.

Darkness

Deindividuation - reduced state of self-awareness.

Economic value on time

If helping someone is losing me an hour of work/pay, then less likely to help.

Pos emotion

Generally, better mood = increased helping.

Neg emotion

Generally, neg mood = reduced helping.

Feelings of elation

Elation = feeling inspired, uplifted, optimistic - heightened level of pos emotion.

Gender expectations

Overall, gender expectations aren't significant.

Aggression

Intentional efforts to harm others in some way.

Direct aggression

Hitting, yelling.

Indirect aggression

Ghosting, exclusion, gossiping.

Motivation behind prosocial behavior

Empathy-based helping is not the primary motivation responsible for helpful actions.

Aggression and prosocial behavior overlap

Motives behind prosocial behavior and aggression sometimes overlap and can't be easily separated.

Biological factors of aggression

Basic nature as species; genetic factors play some role in aggression.

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Frustration leads to the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is harming the perceived cause of frustration.

Social learning theory

Humans acquire aggressive responses through direct experience or by observing the behavior of others.

Testosterone and aggression

Testosterone levels increase in men after victories but not after losses or playing against friends.

Cultural differences in aggression

People in different cultures differ strongly in their support for aggressive or confrontational responses.

Aggression in individualistic vs collectivistic cultures

In individualistic cultures, aggression is more subtle compared to collectivistic cultures where it is more overt.

Role of gender in aggression

Gender differences in aggression are not that big but type of aggression expressed by each gender differs.

Aggression and popularity

Aggression and prosocial behavior are sometimes used by the same people to gain popularity and status.

Cultural Variability

Aggression frequency varies across societies.

Individualistic Cultures

Support aggressive responses more than collectivistic cultures.

Collectivistic Cultures

Aggression is more overt compared to individualistic cultures.

Sense of Self

Perception of self influences aggression perception.

Hygen Gene

Gene linked to increased aggression under stress.

Gender Differences

Types of aggression differ between genders.

Testosterone Response

Levels rise in men after victories, not losses.

Aggression and Status

Males may aggress to increase social status.

Biological Factors

Genetic influences on aggressive behavior.

Drive Theories

Aggression arises from external drives to harm.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Frustration leads to a drive to harm others.

External Conditions

Factors like frustration trigger aggressive drives.

Social Learning Theory

Aggressive behaviors learned through experience and observation.

General Aggression Model (GAM)

Model explaining aggression through situational and personal factors.

Input Variables

Situational and personal factors leading to aggression.

Arousal

Physiological excitement linked to aggressive behavior.

Affective States

Hostile feelings that can lead to aggression.

Cognitions

Thoughts that can provoke aggressive responses.

Appraisal

Interpretation of situations influencing aggression.

Priming

Exposure to aggression increases likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Social Exclusion

Feeling isolated can lead to increased aggression.

Video Games and Media

Exposure can influence aggressive behavior in individuals.

Closeness to Goal

Near attainment increases frustration and aggression.

Unexpected Frustration

Surprising setbacks heighten aggressive responses.

Frustration

An emotional response to blocked goals or desires.

Direct Provocation

Incitement that angers or irritates an individual.

Condescension

Expressions of arrogance or disdain from others.

Harsh Criticism

Unjustified negative feedback that can provoke aggression.

Teasing

Provocative remarks highlighting someone's flaws playfully.

Self-Identity Threat

Actions that jeopardize one's social status or image.

Excitation Transfer Theory

Residual arousal from one situation intensifies reactions in another.

Hostile Cognitive Mindset

Perception of others' actions as aggressive or threatening.

Bobo Doll Experiment

Study showing children imitate aggressive behaviors observed.

Longitudinal Studies

Research tracking participants over extended periods.

Violent Video Games

Games that increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors.

Desensitization

Reduced emotional response to violence from repeated exposure.

Event-Related Brain Potential

Brain activity changes in response to processed information.

P300 Activity

Brain response indicating desensitization to violent images.

Knowledge Structures

Mental frameworks guiding perceptions and reactions to aggression.

Hostile Attribution Bias

Tendency to interpret others' actions as hostile.

Narcissism

Exaggerated self-importance leading to aggressive responses.

Narcissistic Rage

Aggression stemming from threats to self-image.

Aggressive Cognitions

Thoughts related to harming others or hostility.

Aggressive Affect

Feelings of anger, hostility, and revenge.

Prosocial Behavior

Actions intended to benefit others or society.

Media Violence

Exposure to violent content influencing aggressive behavior.

Magnitude of Effects

Strength of the relationship between media and aggression.

Cognitive Effects of Exclusion

Social rejection activates hostile perceptions and responses.

Need for Affiliation

Desire for social connections influencing aggressive behavior.

Vulnerability

Tendency to be bitter and defensive.

Gender differences in aggression

Men engage in more physical aggression than women.