Biodiversity test 3

Rhodophyta (red algae)

-live in marine habitats and grow in many forms

-over 6000 mostly multicellular species 

-cell walls made of cellulose 

-have no flagella 

-contain phycoerythrin 

phycoerythrin

red phyotosynthetic pigment in red algae

Chlorophyta (green algae)

-important photosynthetic organisms in freshwater habitats

-ancestors to all land plants and traditionally considered protists 

-can be uni or multicellular and live in marine and freshwater environments (unicellular are common in planktonic protists and animals that live in lakes and ponds)

-reproduce sexually and asexually 

-Chloroplasts have a double membrane and chlorophylls a and b

lichens 

plant-like organism that descends from stable associations between green algae or cyanobacteria and fungi

-found in terrestrial environments that lack soil 

alternation of generations step 1 

the sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis

alternation of generations step 2

spores divde by mitosis and develop a haploid gametophyte

alternation of generations step 3

haploid gametophytes produce haploid gametes by mitosis

alternation of generations step 4

two gametes unite during fertilization to form a diploid zygote

alternation of generations step 5

the zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte

cuticle

waxy, waterproof layer in plant leaves that is a protective barrier against water loss, disease, etc. and allowed plants to grow on land

stomata

microscopic pores on plant surfaces to regulate gas exchange and allowed plants to grow on land 

water-conducting tissue

allows plants to transport water upwards from the roots and allowed plants to grow on land

what allowed plants reproduce in dry environments

evolution of gametangia, retained embryos, pollen, seeds, and flowers

land plants share these traits with stone warts (charophyceans)

1. rosette-shaped complex in cell membrane to synthesize cellulose 

2. peroxisome enzymes to minimize loss of organic products from photorespiration

3. flagellated sperm cells

4. Distinctive arrangement of microtubules in late cytokinesis

5. nuclear and chloroplast genes show they share the same ancestor

Coleochaetophyceae(coleochaetes) and Charophyceae(stone warts)

species that green algae are most closely related to these land plants 

photo respiration

when O2 builds up in leaf to suppress photosynthesis and depress ATP production

stone warts

-accumulate crust of calcium carbonate on surface

-reproduction involves production of prominent, multicellular gametangia

-presence indicated that the water is not polluted

alternation of generations

individuals have a multicellular haploid phase called the gametophyte and a multicellular diploid phase known as the sporophyte — create gametes and spores

what allowed plants to efficiently reproduce in dry environments

• spores that resist drying because they are encased in a tough coat of sporopollenin

• gametes that were produced in complex, multi-cellular structures (gametangia)

• embryos that were retained on and nourished by the parent plant

gametangia

early land plants that contained specialized reproductive organs that protected from drying and damage (antheridium for male and archegonium for female)

gemmae

small asexual reproduction structures that are knocked off the parent plant in rain and grow into gametophytes

Embryophyta (“embryo-plant”)

the retention of the embryo is a key event in land plant evolution

transfer cells

land plants have specilaized ____ which make physical contact with parental cells and facilitate the transfer of nutrients

antheridium

sperm-producing structure of the gametangia 

archegonium

egg producing structure in the gametangia

sporopollenin

A resilient polymer that protects pollen and spores from environmental stresses through tough coat 

Bryophytes (mosses)

-non-vascular plant 

-gametophyte is the dominant life cycle

-grow low to the ground in mostly moist forests

-use rhizoids to anchor to soil, rocks, or tree bark

-require water for reproduction because this is how the flagellated sperm swim 

-mostly reproduce asexually through fragmentation

dioecious

have male and female reproductive organs in separate individuals. Means sperm must swim to reproduce sexually

rhizoids

allows plants without roots to anchor to the soil, rocks, or tree bark

Hornwarts (anthocerophyta)

-vascular plants 

-look like horns and have stomata

-some have seperate sexes and some have both male and female reproductive structures 

-sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte but also photosynthetic and capable of producing its own food 

-harbor symbiotic cyanobacteria 

non-vascular plants

have no true vascular tissue and have specialized groups of cells with lignin that conduct water and dissolve nutrients 

seedless vascular plants 

well-developed vascular tissue but do not make seeds, have embryo and store of nutritive tissue surrounded by protective layer 

seed plants

have vascular tissue and make seeds

Lycophyta (club mosses)

-over 1000 species living today that are small in stature

-most ancient plant with roots 

-burning of this plant generates electricity in coal-fired plants

microphylls

leaves with a single strand of vascular tissue found in lycophytes

whisk ferns

-seedless vascular plants with no fossil record

-live only in tropical regions

-lack both leaves and roots (assumed to have lost complex structure)

-gets most of its nutrition from fungi that grow with their ribozomes

-grow in rock crevices or are epiphytes 

epiphytes 

plant that grows on another plant but they do not harm or hurt one another 

horsetails

-seedless vascular plant

-brushy appearance of stems and branches 

-flourish in waterlogged soils by allowing oxygen to diffuse down their hollow stems 

-asexual reproduction through fragmentation

Ferns (Pteridophyta)

-over 12000 known species, 1/3 are epiphytes’

-abundant in tropics and can be any size

-have megaphylls called fronds to give surface area for photosynthesis

-fiddleheads are used as food

-sporangia are found in clusters called sori on the underside of fronds 

-reproduce sexually and are mostly homosporous 

frond

large well developed leaves (megaphylls) in ferns

fiddleheads

young fronds in ferns

sori

sporangia found in cluster on the underside of fronds on ferns

monoecious

when one size of spore is produced that develops into a bisexual female gametophyte

homosporous

plants that only produce one type of spore that will grow into a bisexual gametophyte

development of vascular tissue

1. simple water-conducting cells with only a cellulose primary wall

2. vascular tissue with primary wall and lignin

3. tracheids develops with a lingin secondary wall and end caps that have pits

4. vessel elements that made the endcaps have gaps

tracheids

long thin, tapering water-conducting cells with a thick, lingin containing secondary cell wall and a cellulose containing primary wall with pits on the sides and ends of the cell

vessel elements 

water-conducting cell that developed from tracheids that was shorter and wider and has gaps on the ends 

heterospory

the production of two distinct types of spore-producing structures that made distinct male and female spores

-found in seed plants 

microsporangia

produce microspores that develop into male gameophytes and produce sperm

megasporangia

produce megaspores that develop into female gameophytes that produce eggs

coal

carbon-rich rock formations packed with fossil spores, branches, leaves and tree trunks

sporophyll

modified leaf in plants that bears sporangia (where spores are produced)

seed plants

-monophyletic group of gymnosperms and angiosperms 

-defined by production of seeds and pollen

-all heterosporous 

Gymnosperms

also called naked seed, produce seeds that do not develop in an enclosed structure

angiosperms

flowering plant where seeds develop inside a protective structure called a carpel

carpel

The female reproductive structure that encloses the ovules and will develop into fra uit that protects and disperses the seed

pollen grain

The male gametophytes that move to the female gametophytes through the air

are encased in sporopollenin

seed

structure that includes an embryo and a store of nutrients provided by the mother, by a tough, protective coat

Cycads

-branch of the gymnosperms

-resemble palms but not closely related

-have compound leaves

-has either a microsporangium or a megasporangium and have flagellated sperm 

-harbor large number of symbiotic, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria 

Ginkgos

-have a large fossil record but only one exists today

-is a deciduous plant (meaning it loses its leaves in autumn and is dormant in winter)

-Trees are either male or female, and sperm are flagellated 

conifers

-reproductive structure is the cone where microsporangia and megasporangia are produced

-pines have a unique arragement of need-like leaves while others have scale-like, overlapping leaves 

-some are wind-pollinated while others seeds are dispersed by birds or mammals 

ex. giant sequioas, coast redwoods, pines, spruces, and firs 

angiosperms 

-most species-rich plants

-Defining adaptation is the flower that is colored to attract pollinators 

-contains both tracheids and vessel elements 

-have ovules to develop seeds, which are surrounded by ovaries 

ovules 

-unripe seeds inside the carpel

-hold the embryo sac (female is 7-cells)

flower

angiosperm reproductive organ

stamen

male fertilizing organ of a flower 

anther

contained in the stamen that contains the pollen and where the microsporangia is developed 

ovary

contained inside the carpel where the ovules are found

double fertilization

in angiosperms when 2 male gametes from one pollen grain fertilize 2 distinctive cells within the female gametophyte

endosperm 

the triploid nutritive tissue in angiosperms 

sepals and petals