AP Psych U5 AP Exam

Modal model

Memory is divided into three separate storage areas: sensory, short-term, and long-term.

Sensory memory

Very short and limited; visual sensory memory is referred to as iconic and auditory sensory memory is referred to as echoic memory.

Iconic memory

Also called short-term visual memory; used as a very brief form of memory that goes away if the length of time between exposure and recall is large and there is no attempt to rehearse the information.

Short-term memory

Can hold 7 +/- 2 items and works best when memorizing in triplets

can be maintained and sent to long-term memory through rehearsal

Two types of rehearsal: maintenance and elaborative

Short-term memory

Maintenance rehearsal

Simple repetition to keep an item in short-term memory until it can be used.

Short-term memory

Elaborative rehearsal

Organization and understanding of the information that is encoded so that the information can enter long-term memory.

Effortful processing

Making a conscious effort to retain information.

Automatic processing

Unconscious processing of information that occurs with well-practiced skills.

Mnemonic device

Using short words to remember information that is more elaborate; good technique for memorizing long bits of information.

Dual-coding hypothesis

It is easier to remember words that are associated with objects rather than the words or images alone.

Method of loci

Aids in memorizing objects by moving through a familiar location and remembering objects in this familiar place in a certain order.

Self-reference effect

It is easier to remember things that are more relevant to oneself.

Encoded

Entered into long-term memory for later access rather than being lost in short-term memory.

Decay

Losing things in short-term memory due to the passage of time.

Interference

Losing things in short-term memory due to being replaced by new information.

Retroactive interference

New information pushes out old information.

Proactive interference

Old information makes it difficult to retain new information.

Primacy effect

Remembering information that came first; lasts slightly more than a day.

Recency effect

Remembering things that were last/most recent; fades out in a day.

Serial position effect

The combination of the serial and recency effects.

Chunking

Grouping items together and remembering the groups and their components rather than a full ungrouped list.

Long-term memory

The repository of information for all memories and knowledge that is lasting and is organized in vast networks of interconnected information.

Semantic encoding

Encoded in the form of word meanings.

Episodic memory

Memory for events that we experienced by ourselves.

Semantic memory

Memory that is made up of facts, figures, and general world knowledge.

Procedural memory

Memory consisting of skills and habits.

Declarative (explicit) memory

Memory that can consciously be thought of and recalled.

Nondeclarative (implicit) memory

Memory that is beyond conscious consideration and would include procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning.

Context-dependent memory

Information that is trying to be recalled in a situation that is similar to the situation in which it was encoded is easier to recall.

State-dependent memory

Information that is memorized under a certain state of mind is easier to recall under that same state of mind.

Working memory

Between sensory and short-term memory; allows for manipulation and analysis of sensory information.

Nodes

Central memories that other memories are centered around and act as keystone memories.

Recollection

A process that allows for easier retrieval of information.

Strength of an association

Dependent on how frequently the network is accessed and how deep it is.

Retrieval of information

Can be improved by building more and stronger connections between ideas.

Spreading activation

Activation of a few nodes leading to a pattern of activation within the whole network of nodes.

Flashbulb memory

Deep, vivid memory that is in the form of a visual image associated with a particularly emotional event.

Reconstruction

Fitting together events in a way that seems very likely.

Source confusion

Causes reconstruction; attribute a memory to different sources rather than the real ones.

Framing

Repeated questions and false information can lead to reconstruction of memory.

Ebbinghaus

Created a forgetting curve that looked like a negative exponential graph; invented spaced repetition.

Language

Arrangement of sounds that can be used to communicate ideas.

Language is arbitrary

Language has a structure that is additive

Language can be  analyzed and understood in many ways

Language is productive, nearly endless combination of words

Language is dynamic – constantly changing

Phonemes

Smallest units of speech sounds in a given language that are still distinct from each other.

Morphemes

Smallest semantically meaningful parts of language.

Grammar

Set of rules by which language is constructed, governed by semantics and syntax.

Syntax

Rules for how words are supposed to be arranged to be meaningful.

Semantics

The meaning of words and word choice.

Prosody

Rhythm, stress, and intonation of speech.

Holophrases

Single words filled with meaning when further context can't be given.

Overextension

When a word is used to define more than it actually describes due to a lack of extensive vocabulary.

Underextension

When a word is used to describe very specific objects rather than the general objects/ideas.

Telegraphic speech

Removing unnecessary words while maintaining meaning.

Overgeneralization

Rules of grammar are not correctly applied.

Language acquisition device

Facilitates the acquisition of language in children.

Critical period

The period of time when people are most predisposed to learning new information (typically language and behavior).

Theory of linguistic relativity

Speakers of different languages develop different cognitive systems as a result of differences in language.

Concept

A way of grouping or classifying the world into certain categories.

Typicality

Degree to which an object fits the average.

Prototype

A stereotypical image when we are told of an object.

Superordinate concept

Very broad and encompasses a large set of ideas/objects.

Basic concept

Smaller and more specific.

Subordinate concept

Even smaller and even more specific.

Cognition

Encompasses the mental processes involved in acquiring, organizing, remembering, using, and constructing knowledge.

Reasoning

Drawing conclusions from evidence.

Deductive reasoning

Drawing conclusions from general statements.

Syllogisms

Deductive conclusions from two premises.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general inferences from specific instances.

Divergent thinking

Coming up with many ideas from one prompt.

Convergent thinking

Coming to an idea from many other ideas.

Heuristics

Shortcuts in the brain's thinking process to speed up problem solving.

Availability heuristic

Conclusions drawn from easily available events.

Representativeness heuristic

Attaching a single event to a broader context and thinking of all related things in terms of that one instance.

Algorithms

Methodical ways to reach a conclusion by eliminating answers.

Insight

Sudden realization of an answer to a problem.

Mental set

Fixed frame of thinking that doesn't allow for creativity.

Functional fixedness

Associating a single object with only its typical purposes.

Confirmation bias

Searching for only supporting evidence.

Hindsight bias

Tendency to think you knew the answer after finding out what it is.

Creativity

Process of producing something that is novel and worthwhile.