BYU Psych 111 Final

Definition of hindsight bias

belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it wasn't

Charles' Darwin influence on evolutionary psychology

- Natural selection
- Organisms varied offspring compete for survival
- Biological and behavioral variations increase organisms' reproductive and survival chances in their environment
- Offspring that survive pass their genes to ensuing generations
- Population characteristics may change

Criticism of evolutionary psychology

- weakness in explanation of our mating preferences
- Why should we try to explain today's behaviors based on decisions our distant ancestors made
- Third criticism focuses on evolutionary psychology's possible social effects

(Does it weaken social movements aimed at reducing sexual aggression?)

Definition of overconfidence

overestimation of one's actual ability

Why are there similarities in all people, even across cultures?

1. we are subject to the same psychological forces
2. emotions are universal
3. taste is a principle of hunger
4. social behaviors reflect principles of human influence

How are random sequences are often perceived?

1. we find patterns in random sequences
2. perceived as non-coincidental

How does repetition can encourage the acceptance of ideas?

statements that are repeated become more believable to viewers

How does group identity affect the acceptance of misinformation?

1. we tend to friend people who think the same as we do
2. we only seek out information that matches with our beliefs

What constitutes a scientific attitude?

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility

What is the scientific method?

a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

Definition of hypothesis

Predicting relationship between 2 or more variables

What are the benefits of random sampling?

1. random sampling lowers the risk of errors, able to observe and describe behaviors
2. it takes you away from sampling bias, generalizing a few vivid but unrepresentative cases. More accurate data that represents everyone's views

What are the purposes of correlational research?

1. reveals relationships (does not explain)
2. manipulate a factor and determine its effect

What is the difference between positive and negative correlations?

1. positive if two sets tend to rise or fall together
2. negative is if one is rising the other is falling

What is meant by regression toward the mean?

1. the illusion that uncontrollable events correlate with our actions
2. the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

What is the relationship between correlation and causation?

1. Correlation does not prove causation
2. correlation suggests a possible cause-effect relationship but does not prove it

What are the contributions of phrenology to psychology?

1. study of bumps on the skull
2. believed this could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits
3. Phrenology was wrong, but allowed psychologists to focus attention on the localization of function (parts of brain have different

What are the uses of an fMRI?

1. a technique revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
2. shows brain function and structure

What is the role of manipulating and controlling variables in experiments?

1. Manipulating allows to discover correlation between the subjects
2. controlling allows an evaluation of the effects of a treatment

What are the benefits of random assignment?

minimizes preexisting differences between the groups

What is meant by the term statistically significant?

the likelihood that a result would happen by chance if the null hypothesis were true

What is the function of dendrites?

dendrites receive information from the other cells

How do neurons generate electricity?

1. from chemical events
2. sodium ions and potassium ions are exchanged

What is the definition of reuptake?

excess NT finally drift away, broken down by enzymes, or are reabsorbed by the ending neuron process called reuptake

What is the process of opiate reception in the brain?

1. the brain may stop producing its own natural opiates to maintain balance
2. Opiates are binding to receptors in areas linked to mood and pain sensations
3. temporary high lead sto deficiency in naturally made opiates

What is the definition of the nervous system?

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the PNS and CNS

How do neurons fire?

all or nothing

How does the endocrine system affect our emotions?

- you stay mad
- "slow" communication system
- hormones influence our interest in food, sex, and aggression

What are the benefits of two-track processing in the brain?

You can breathe while you do other activities

What are the functions of the thalamus?

at the top of the brainstem; relay station for incoming and outgoing sensory information (with the exception of smell)

What are the functions of the limbic system?

associated with memory and emotion

How does our larger cortex play a role in adaptation?

- it allows for more learning and thinking.
- Enables them to adapt to changing environments

What are the functions of the occipital lobe?

portion of the cerebral cortex that receives information regarding the visual fields

What are the basic functions of the parietal and temporal lobes?

Parietal- receives sensory information for touch and body
temporal- receives information for auditory areas

What are the functions of the association areas in the brain?

They are involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

What are some possible effects from damage to the frontal cortex?

- Can alter personality or remove someone's inhibitions
- moral judgements seem unrestrained
- Phineas Gage (guy who had the pole go through his head)

What are the purposes of analyses of functional connectivity?

- Communications among distinct brain areas and neural networks
- disconnection of communication create increased risk for mental disorders

What does neuroplasticity mean?

- the ability of the brain to form and reorganize synaptic connections, especially in response to learning or experience or following injury.
- adapt to situations

What is the function of the corpus callosum?

neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres carrying messages between them

What are the general views of behaviorists in relation to the influence of mental states?

psychology should be an objective science (without reference to mental processes)

What is selective attention?

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

What is inattentional blindness?

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere (Gorilla suit and basketball)

What is the difference between tasks that require conscious attention and those that don't?

attention- more complex and need full attention

How does the circadian rhythm involved in sleep?

- how our body functions on a 24-hour clock
- daily peak in circadian arousal improves memory and thinking
- become more tired as your bedtime approaches

What goes on in the body during REM sleep?

- Rapid eye movement!!!
- vivid dreams occur
- muscles are relaxed while other body systems are active

How does our production of melatonin change throughout the day?

the pineal gland decreases the production of melatonin in the morning and increases it at night

How does sleep relate to memory?

1. getting enough sleep after learning new information integrates it into memories
2. consolidates our memories
3. the hippocampus processes memories for later retrieval
4. transfers to cortex for long-term storage

How does sleep deprivation affect metabolic rate and limbic brain responses?

- Decreases metabolic rate
- enhances limbic brain responses at the sight of food and decreasing cortical responses that help us resist temptation

Identify behavior patterns associated with addiction.

1. compulsive behavior
2. cravings
3. chronic and relapsing brain disorder
4. cognitive impairment

How does attachment formation affected by nature and nurture?

Nature can affect it through the child's temperament and behaviors which may affect how the mother and father act and care for the child (nurture)

What is a temperament?

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

What are the advantages and disadvantages of animal testing?

advantages- similar to humans, allows us to test on them without risking human life

disadvantages- some animals die

How much is our personality influenced by parenting practices?

- Typically account for less than 10% of children's differences
- There is not a huge impact from parents

Which is larger, person-to-person differences within a cultural group or differences among groups?

Person to person differences are much larger

What does individualism mean?

the belief that the individual was more important than the large community

What does collectivism mean?

Takes on responsibility for providing social and economic security and economic security for the population

What is greater, sex similarities or sex differences?

Sex similarities are greater than the differences

What are the differences between men and women in their goals of conversation?

Women want to build relationships, men talk more to give information and advice

How have changes in gender roles affected women's involvement in academia and in workforce?

- More women can go to universities- 100 years ago may universities were closed to women.
- Women used to not work often, now 40% of the workforce is women

What are some examples of sexual harrasment?

Unwanted sexual advances, obscene remarks, or requests for sexual favors

What does it mean to be intersex?

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth

What is the definition of androgyny?

displaying both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

What does it mean to be cisgender?

gender corresponds with birth sex

What is transgender?

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

What is nonbinary?

people may not feel male or female, or may identify as some combination of both

What are the benefits of gender-affirming medical procedures?

Reduce transgender people's depression, anxiety, and PTSD

How can neural pruning affect our abilities in certain actions?

You need to consistently use your skills to retain them, otherwise you will lose it

What is the definition of cognition?

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

What are the main contributions of Jean Piaget?

1. came up with the 4 stages of cognitive development

What is assimilation?

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

What is accommodation?

The process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near or distant objects

What is the principle of conservation?

idea that the quantity remains the same despite changes in shape (glass of water to bowl of water)

What are some examples of egocentric behavior in children?

1. they have difficulty perceiving things from another's point of view

What are the findings of Harlow's famous experiment with monkeys?

It shows that babies form attachment to warmth and comfort

What are signs of insecure attachment?

secure should result in crying or being upset when mom leaves, while insecure results in clinging or indifference

What are some behaviors associated with secure attachment?

In mother's presence, they play comfortably, happily explore new environment. When she leaves, they become distressed. They seek contact with her when she returns

Authoritarian parenting

coercive; impose rules and expect obedience

Permissive parenting

unrestraining; make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

Neglectful parenting

uninvolved in child's life

Authoritative parenting

Confrontive; demanding and responsive. set rules, but encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

How is the limbic system involved in emotion?

- amygdala- aggression and fear
- hypothalamus- maintains homeostasis and sexual behavior

What are the findings of Haidt's research on moral action?

believed that much of our morality came from moral intuition- quick gut feelings

How do gut-level intuitions impact our moral judgement?

We often make our moral decisions off our gut instinct.

What is the relationship between subliminally presented and consciously perceived stimuli?

- Subliminal- below one's absolute conscious for awareness
- consciously perceived stimuli- stimuli strong enough to be consciously recognized

How does emotion influence perception?

our emotions make us perceive stimuli in the way that correlates with our emotion

What feelings or behaviors are associated with a mid-life crisis?

- unhappiness, job dissatisfaction, marital dissatisfaction, divorce, anxiety and suicide do not surge in the early 40's
- usually comes with a major event rather than age

What is Gottman's ratio of 5:1 in relationships?

there should be 5 positive interactions for every negative interaction

Infancy stage of development

trust vs mistrust

toddlerhood stage of development

autonomy vs shame and doubt

preschool stage of development

initiative vs guilt

elementary school stage of development

competence vs inferiority

adolescence stage of development

identity vs role confusion

young adulthood stage of development

intimacy vs isolation

middle adulthood stage of development

generativity vs stagnation

late adulthood stage of development

integrity vs despair

What is perception?

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information

What is the definition of priming?

the process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept

What is the definition of perceptual set?

mental disposition to perceive one thing and not another

What is subliminal priming?

activating thoughts or feelings without conscious awareness

What is a gestalt?

focus on the bigger picture, the whole