Peace process

What were the 3 wars that the region witnessed from 1946 and 2007?

1. 1969: El Salvador and Honduras.

2. 1982: Argentina and Great Britain (Falklands War).

3. 1995: Ecuador and Peru

What is the approach to IR of the region?

an approach committed to sovereignty and non-intervention, protection from power asymmetries, committing to diplomacy. It’s core principles are

1. Legalism – rule-based system

2. non-interventionism/non-interference

3. Peaceful conflict resolution

Commitment to diplomacy is the result of?

response to post-independence disputes between great powers, Cold War, and contemporary struggles

What are examples of Confidence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs)?

1. American Treaty on Pacific Settlement / Pact of Bogota 1948 – peaceful controversy resolution, 21 countries+US

2. Treaty of Tlatelolco 1957, amended in 1990 – nuclear weapon free zone in LAC, reaffirmed in the 90s by Brazil and Argentina

3. Argentina-Brazil Nuclear Agreement composed by

• Foz de Iguazú Joint Declaration (1985) which initiated cooperation,

• the Agreement on Exclusively Peaceful Use of Nuclear Energy (1986),

• the creation of ABACC (1991) for bilateral monitoring,

• the Quadripartite Agreement (1991) for international verification

What initiatives demonstrate LAC’s proactive approach to conflict resolution independent of world powers?

• Contadora group 1983 (Mexico, Colombia, Venezuela, Panama) promote political reforms

• Esquipulas Peace Agreement 1987

• Ayacucho Declaration 1974 reaffirming commitment to peace, disarmament and regional unity

What demonstrates the shift on the role of the US in security?

the creation and reliance on UNASUR and ICJ for mediation and conflict resolution

US perception of security

expected to have a shared threat perception, a lot of concern around ‘renegade’ countries which aligned with US rivals. Tried to influence LAC militaries through exchanges and training, but limited success

US focus shift after Cold War

• Combating the illegal drug trade.

• Protecting democracy.

• Supporting international humanitarian missions.

• Avoiding interference in domestic politics

Outcome of the 2003 Special Security Conference in Mexico and Declaration on Security in the Americas

1. International drug trade.

2. Territorial disputes.

3. Ideological competition.

4. Natural resources and environmental disputes.

5. Economic tensions.

6. Military modernization implications

Territorial and ideological disputes

It can be substantive – challenging recognized boundaries or procedural disputing the application of a framework

1. Venezuela-Guyana dispute over El Esequibo – Venezuela claims the 1899 arbitration award for 159,500 km² west of the Esequibo River was unfair, while Guyana considers it binding. Recent intensification followed resource discovery, leading to ICJ involvement. Comprising the 1966 Geneva Agreement.

2. Bolivia’s demand for sea access through Chile.

3. Honduras-El Salvador contest over Isla Conejo.

4. Nicaragua-Costa Rica dispute over Isla Calero.

5. Chile-Argentina disagreement on Patagonian Ice Fields borders (a 13,000 square kilometer area in the southern Andes), both countries disagree on how the border should be drawn

Ideological competition

• Decrease at the end of the cold war most countries embraced democracy and liberal economic reforms

• Hugo Chavez poses a challenge in 1998 w advocacy of the socialism of the 21st century → dissatisfaction of ppl

• Cross-border ideological conflicts challenge the legitimacy of political systems and raise concern about national sovereignty

• Ties between latam countries and foreign powers → argen and iran

Natural resources and environmental disputes

Show complex interplay between econ development, environmental protection and ir

1. Resource competition

2. Environmental damage

3. Indigenous communities

Foreign investments and economic tensions

1. Resentment in receiving countries

2. Investor countries concerns

3. Economic integration challenges

Militarization

• Rebuilding of military forces after late 20th century

  • Colombia 2009 attack on guerrilla camp in ecuador

  • Paraguay 2009 complaint against Brazilian maneuvers

  • Nicaragua 2011 operations on the San Juan River

• Lack of a common understanding of threats and competing strategic views with little transparency

• Use of low level military force in interstate bargainin

• Context of threats, coercion and low-level violence

International Drug trade

• Increasing violence in Mexico, Central America and Brazil

• Trafficking of arms, money and people

• Government see it now as a regional issue

• Concern on cross-border ties of insurgents

• Rejection of US war on drugs, ut strategies still limited and punitive

• International cooperation to combat drug trafficking → concern over sovereignty for joint missions

• Need for new approaches

Mexican drug cartels

• The problem can be linked to the 71 year rule of the PRI → stability but high levels of poverty corruption and impunity → the system facilitated drug production and trafficking

• Us pressure only pushed 4 crackdowns

• 2000, national action party, fighting for control of territories bt violence contained up to 2007

• Calderon military offense against cartels → multiplication of drug trafficking

• Self defense groups

Evolution of cartels

• In the early 2000s, four major cartels dominated: Gulf, Juárez, Sinaloa (Pacific), and Tijuana (Arellano-Félix) 

• By 2016, the number had increased to ten major cartels 

• As of 2021, over 100 organizations are fighting for territorial control

• Smaller cartels still pay tribute to larger ones

• Sinaloa cartel remains the strongest

Nature of drug cartels

• Violent entrepreneurs competing in an illicit market

• Primary goal is profit, not the destruction of the state

• Pose threats to local/regional governments not central government

• Their activities lead to state absence in certain territories

• Diversification of criminal activities to maintain profitability

Different activities of cartels

• Extortion

• Kidnapping

• Human trafficking and forced labor

• Organ trafficking

• Murder-for-hire

• Control of migrant routes

The case of los zetas

• Founded in the late 90s as bodyguards for Gul Cartel leaders

• Example of militarization of drug cartels

• Ex military personnel whom possessed elite training from the US

• 2010 broke away from the gulf cartel

• Military rank – highest Zetas Viejos and Halcones w no military training

Impact on proliferation of drug cartels on Mexican society

• Increased violence and insecurity 

• Erosion of state authority in cartel-controlled areas 

• Widespread corruption 

• Economic impact extortion of businesses, disruption of legitimate economic activities 

• Social impact forced displacement, breakdown of community structures 

• Human rights violations kidnappings, murders, forced disappearances 

• Strain on public resources for security and law enforcement

International implication of drug cartels

• Primary market is US

• Need collaboration between US and Mexico

• Impact on Central American countries, spillover of violence and migration

• Integration in the global drug supply chain

Ongoing challenges of drug cartels in Mexico

• Corruption

• Poverty and lack of economic opportunities fueling cartel recruitment 

• Adaptability of cartels to new strategies 

• Balancing security measures with human rights concerns 

• Addressing drug demand in consumer countries, particularly the U.S. 

• Strengthening institutions and the rule of law 

• Developing effective regional and international cooperation
  The path forward requires a multifaceted approach, addressing not just security issues but also underlying social and economic factors that contribute to the persistence of drug cartels in Mexico

Two dominant norms for LAC FP

1. Defense of sovereignty – reaction to recurrent interventions by foreign powers

2. Protection of democracy – reaction to 20th century authoritarian regimes

Current challenges for LAC due to organized crime

1. Balancing act of sovereignty, democratic institution preservation and combat organized crime

2. Institutional challenges by corruption

3. Economic factors lucrative illegal business

4. Regional cooperation to address transnational crime

5. Multifaceted approach to solve problems