Biology and Behavior

What is neuropsychology and what does it study?

Neuropsychology is the scientific study of how the structure and function of the nervous system, particularly the brain, influence cognition, emotion, and behavior.

What are the three main types of neurons in the nervous system?

Sensory (Afferent) Neurons, Motor (Efferent) Neurons, Interneurons

How is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) organized, and what are its key subdivisions?

• Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

• Autonomic Nervous System (automatic)

  • Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) – Fight-or-Flight

  • Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) – Rest-and-Digest

How do reflex arcs use interneurons to coordinate rapid responses and brain communication?

1. Stimulus - Activates sensory receptors (e.g., heat, pain)

2. Sensory (Afferent) Neuron - Sends signal to spinal cord

3. Interneuron (Integration Center) - Processes signal; triggers motor neuron and routes info to brain

4. Motor (Efferent) Neuron - Sends signal to muscle or gland

5. Effector - Muscle or gland executes the response (e.g. muscle contraction)

What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Composed of the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

• Includes cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia

What are the three major subdivisions of the brain?

Hindbrain, Midbrain, and Forebrain

What are the key components of the hindbrain?

CMR = Core Motor Regulation

Cerebellum

Medulla Oblongata

Reticular Formation

The midbrain contains…

the superior and inferior colliculi

What are the major components of the forebrain?

The Hungry Brain Loves Complex Thinking

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Basal Ganglia
Limbic System

Cerebral Cortex

What are the major methods used to study brain function and structure?

"L.E.A.R.N. the Brain"

Lesions

Electrical Simulation

Activity Recording - Real-time neural signals (EEG/MEG)

Regional Blood Flow

Neuroimaging

What is the role of the thalamus?

a relay station for sensory information

Hypothalamus role?

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis and integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary

Basal ganglia role?

central to refining movement and maintaining postural control

What are the key components of the limbic system and its role?

contains the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus, controls emotion and memory

septal nuclei function:

The septal nuclei are involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure- seeking behavior, and addiction

What role does the amygdala play?

controls fear and aggression

Hippocampus function:

The hippocampus consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the fornix

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

F-POT

The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

What are the key functions of the frontal lobe?

FEELS

Frontal Executive

Emotion

Language

Strategy

What are the key functions of the parietal lobe?

The parietal lobe controls sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; spatial processing; orientation; and manipulation

What does the occipital lobe do?

controls visual processing

What does the temporal lobe control?

TEMPORAL

Tunes

Emotions

Memory

Perception Of Real Auditory Language

Which hemisphere is dominant for language in most individuals?

Left Hemisphere Dominance

What do neurotransmitters do?

Neurotransmitters are released by neurons and carry a signal to another neuron or effector (a muscle fiber or a gland).

Where is acetylcholine used in the nervous system?

Acetylcholine is used by the somatic nervous system (to move muscles), the parasympathetic nervous system, and the central nervous system (for alertness).

what does dopamine do?

maintains smooth movements and steady posture.

What do endorphins and enkephalins do?

act as natural painkillers

epinephrine and norepinephrine function:

Epinephrine and norepinephrine maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediate fight-or-flight responses. Epinephrine tends to act as a hormone, and norepinephrine tends to act more classically as a neurotransmitter.

γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine function:

act as brain “stabilizers.”

What is glutamate’s role in the brain?

acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter

• Glutamate excites neurons, increasing the likelihood of action potential firing

Serotonin function:

modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns, and dreaming

How does the endocrine system connect to the nervous system?

through the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary, as well as a few other hormones.

What is cortisol?

a stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex

testosterone and estrogen:

Testosterone:

• Primary Sources: Testes, adrenal cortex

• Key roles: Libido, aggression, muscle growth

Estrogen:

• Primary Sources: Ovaries, adrenal cortex

• Key roles: Libido, mood, reproductive cycle

Where are epinephrine and norepinephrine secreted?

adrenal medulla

are epinephrine and norepinephrine related to the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system?

they cause physiological changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system

nature vs. nurture

a classic debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to an individual’s traits.

For most traits, both nature and nurture play a role.

The relative effects of each can be studied.

What do family studies do?

look at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population

What do twin studies do?

compare concordance rates between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins

What do adoption studies do?

compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents.

How does the nervous system develop through neurulation?

The nervous system develops through neurulation, in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells.

During neurulation, what does the neural tube and neural crest become?

The neural tube becomes the central nervous system (CNS).

The neural crest cells spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues

What are primitive reflexes and why do they matter?

• Involuntary, brainstem-mediated motor responses present at birth

• Most primitive reflexes serve (or served, in earlier times) a protective role.

• They can reappear in certain nervous system disorders.

Rooting Reflex - Key Primitive Reflex

• Stimulus: Stroke to the cheek

• Response: Infant turns head toward stimulus

• Function: Facilitates feeding (locating nipple)

Moro Reflex (Startle) - Key Primitive Reflex

Stimulus: Sudden loss of support or loud noise

Response: Arms extend outward, then retract; often followed by crying

Function: Protective response to falling

Babinski Reflex - Key Primitive Reflex

• Stimulus: Stroke along the sole of the foot

• Response: Big toe extends upward, other toes fan out

• Function: Unknown in infants; pathologic if retained in adults

Grasping reflex - Key Primitive Reflex

• Stimulus: Object placed in palm

• Response: Fingers close around object

• Function: Primitive grasping behavior

What are developmental milestones?

Predictable skills and behaviors most children achieve by specific ages

Most children follow these closely, with minor variation (~1–2 months)

How do Gross and fine motor abilities progress?

head to toe and core to periphery.

How do social skills develop?

from parent-oriented (Social smile, separation anxiety) to self-oriented (Autonomy, tantrums, parallel play) to other-oriented (Cooperative play, empathy, sharing)

how do language skills develop?

they become more complex over time

What do motor neurons do?

transmit motor information from the brain to the body

what do sensory neurons do?

transmit sensory information from receptors to the brain

What is the function of the hindbrain?

responsible for balance and motor coordination

What is the function of the midbrain?

manages sensorimotor reflexes that promote survival

What is function of the forebrain?

Associated with emotion, memory, and higher-order cognition

What cognitive functions are associated with the nondominant hemisphere?

Nondominant hemisphere (usually right): Spatial awareness, emotional tone, holistic processing, sense of direction

What are catecholamines and what the significant ones?

• hormones produced by the adrenal glands during the flight or fight response

• Dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine are significant ones

What neurotransmitter can cause hallucinations in people with Schizophrenia?

dopamine

What does the pineal gland do?

responsible for producing melatonin, which controls the body’s circadian rhythm

What diseases are associated with dopamine and how?

• Schizophrenia:

  • associated with high levels of dopamine or high sensitivity to dopamine

• Parkinson’s disease:

  • associated with the destruction of the dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia

Do identical or fraternal twins share more similar traits?

Identical twins share the same genetic makeup, which can result in more similar personality traits compared to fraternal twins, who share about 50% of their genes, like typical siblings.