All AP Language and Composition Terms

Metaphor

A comparison between two things; does not use the words "like" or "as"

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor that is thoroughly developed and extends through sentences, lines, or even paragraphs

Simile

A comparison between two things that are not alike; uses the word "like" or the word "as"

Paradox

A statement that contradicts itself or is logically impossible but contains a figurative truth

Oxymoron

Two contradictory words put next to each other

Analogy

A comparison of relationships between objects or ideas

Symbol

A concrete object or a person that represents an idea or concept

Personification

The description of nonhuman things as being or acting humanly

Allusion

A subtle or unexplained reference to another object, work, or event

Hyperbole

An exaggeration of something for emphasis

Parable

A short story featuring human characters that is intended to convey a lesson or principle

Allegory

A narrative in which the events and characters are all symbols that are related to one another

Irony

A contrast or conflict between what is expected or predicted and what actually happens

Verbal Irony

A statement in which the meaning supposedly intended is in conflict with the real situation or the actual intentions of the speaker

Point Of View

The perspective from which a story is told; the proximity of the narrator to the events of the story

Conceit

A type of clever, unexpected extended metaphor in which the things being compared are not necessarily similar to each other

Apostrophe

A direct address to a third party that is not present, often an object or a personified quality or idea

Synecdoche

The use of a term meaning part of something to refer to the whole

Metonymy

A reference made to a thing or idea by calling it by the name of a related thing or idea

Euphemism

A less harsh or more acceptable term in place of one that is taboo or unpleasant

Understatement

A statement that underemphasizes the reality of a situation; often done for humorous effect

Pun

A purposeful play on words that has multiple meanings due to its use of similarly spoken or written words with different meanings

Colloquialism

An informal word or phrase used in speech or writing

Malapropism

The misuse of a word in place of one that sounds similar but has a different meaning

Parody

An imitation of an author or work, intended to poke fun at or make a point about the original

Satire

A work that ridicules faults, poor decisions, and injustices in society to show that improvement is needed

Antecedent

A term or expression to which a pronoun refers

Syntax

The rules for word order and arrangement in sentences in a certain language

Juxtaposition

A technique of placing two ideas, things, or characters side by side to show similarities, differences, and links

Sarcasm

Bitter, often ironic speech in which the literal meaning often differs from the intent

Prose

Writing that is not poetry; meant to reflect ordinary conversation or speech in an idealized form

Aphorism

A concisely expressed statement (often parallel in structure) of universal truth

Circumlocution

An unnecessarily lengthy, vague, or roundabout way of describing something

Repetition

Using a word or phrase several or many times in order to emphasize a point or have an effect on the audience

Polysyndeton

The repetition of conjunctions (unnecessarily) between words, phrases, or clauses

Asyndeton

The omission of conjunctions (usually "and") in a series of words, phrases, or clauses

Anaphora

The deliberate repetition of a word or words at the start of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences

Epistrophe/Epiphora

The deliberate repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences (it is the opposite of anaphora)

Anadiplosis

A form of repetition in which a word or group of words located at the end of one clause or sentence is repeated at or near the beginning of the following clause or sentence

Hypophora

Asking a question (in speech or writing) and then immediately answering that question

Loose Sentence

A sentence that starts with the main independent clause and then is followed by modifying phrases and clauses

Periodic Sentence

A sentence that starts with modifying phrases or clauses before getting to the main independent clause OR a sentence that starts with the main subject but then has modifying phrases or clauses that delay the completion of the independent clause

Parallelism

The grammatical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity (repeated grammatical structure)

Chiasmus

A chiasmus is inverted parallelism in which two clauses are related to each other through a reversal of grammatical structure

Antimetabole

Antimetabole is a device in which the writer repeats phrases or clauses but with specific words/phrases presented in reverse order

Antithesis

An antithesis is a form of parallelism in which there is a contradiction of ideas/words within a parallel grammatical structure

Faulty Parallelism

When two or more parts of a sentence are parallel in meaning (such as items in a series), you should coordinate those parts by making them parallel in form. Otherwise, your readers may be confused by the faulty parallelism

Line of Reasoning

The arrangement of claims and evidence that leads the author to their thesis/conclusion

What do you need to identify for a line of reasoning?

1. The thesis/central claim

2. The sub-claims that lead to the thesis/central claim

3. Specific examples or pieces of evidence that are offered to strengthen a claim

Counterargument

An argument put forward to oppose another argument

Concession to the Opposition

Acknowledging an opponent's argument or point as valid to show fairness and logical thinking

Rebuttal

Contradicting the opposition's claim by providing more convincing evidence to show how your claim is stronger (not disproving the opposition's claim with conclusive, indisputable evidence)

Refutation

Disproving the opposition's claim by providing conclusive, indisputable evidence that shows how the claim is wrong or invalid

What makes a line of reasoning bad?

-Weak evidence or unsubstantiated claims

-Sources that are not credible

-Extraneous details

-Poor organization of claims and evidence

-Bias and failure to examine the issue in an objective, rational manner

-Logical fallacies

Logical Fallacy

faulty reasoning (reasoning based on illogical claims); Logical fallacies can be detrimental to your argument writing

Ad hominem

making a personal attack (name calling or attacking a person's character) in an argument instead of focusing on the person's actual position/claims

Ad ignorantiam/Appeal to Ignorance

assuming that something is true/not true or right/wrong simply because it has not or cannot be proven otherwise

Ad nauseam

making an argument repeatedly and excessively to the point of disgust

Ad Numerum/Bandwagon Fallacy

making the argument that something is right/wrong or moral/immoral just because many other people agree with that position

Ad Verecundiam/Appeal to Authority

claiming that something is true/false or right/wrong just by mentioning someone well known or someone in a position of authority who agrees with that position (but the person is not an expert in that specific area)

Sweeping generalization

an overstatement that makes a generalization that is not proven or thoroughly examined properly (think of stereotypes that are made about certain groups of people)

Non sequitur

assuming a conclusion about something that does not have logical support (the conclusion doesn't logically follow)

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc

assuming a cause-and-consequence relationship just because one event happened after another (A happens, then B happens, and one assumes that A caused B)

False Dilemma/False Dichotomy

presenting only two sides or solutions to an issue (no middle ground)

Kafka Trap

a fallacy where it is assumed that if someone denies being x it is taken as evidence that the person is x since someone who is x would deny being x

Red Herring

presenting an irrelevant topic as a distraction in order to divert attention from the original topic

Straw Man

substituting a person's actual argument with a distorted or exaggerated one on purpose and then attacking the distorted one instead of the actual one

Steelmanning

NOT a logical fallacy

when you build up the opposition's argument and make it as strong as possible