Chapter 15 and 16: Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal Cord)

The brain is composed of four major regions: the _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Cerebrum; cerebellum; diencephalon; brainstem

When viewed superiorly, the cerebrum is divided into two halves, known as the _____.

Left and right cerebral hemisphere

Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into five functional areas, known as _____. _____ are visible superficially, while the last is only visible internally.

Lobes; four

Gyri (plural for gyrus) refer to _____.

Folds on the outer surface of the brain

Sulci (plural for sulcus) refer to _____.

Shallow depressions between gyri

The brain is associated with _____ cranial nerves.

12 pairs of

When referring to the brain, rostral is towards the _____, or _____.

Nose; anterior

When referring to the brain, caudal is towards the _____, or _____.

Tail; posterior

In the brain, _____ houses motor neuron and interneuron cell bodies, dendrites, axon terminals/terminal arborizations, and unmyelinated axons.

Gray matter

A center refers to a _____ in the _____.

Cluster of neuron cell bodies; CNS

A nucleus refers to a _____ in the _____.

Center that displays discrete anatomic boundaries; CNS

The cortex refers to the _____.

Superficial layer of gray matter covering most of the adult brain

White matter derives its color from _____.

Myelinated axons

In the brain, white matters lies deep to the _____.

Cortex

Tracts/funiculi (plural for funiculus) refer to a _____.

Bundle of axons in the CNS

A peduncle refers to a stalk-like structure composed of _____ that _____.

Tracts; connect two regions of the brain

Ganglia (plural for ganglion) refers to _____ in the _____.

Clusters of neuron cell bodies; PNS

Nerves (plural for nerve) refer to a _____ in the _____.

Bundle of axons; PNs

A nerve plexus is a _____ in the _____.

Network of nerves; PNS

A pathway refers to _____.

Two or more neurons that relay nerve signals between the CNS, PNS, and body structures

As an overview of the support and protection of the brain, the _____ provides rigid support. Protective _____ membranes surround, support, stabilize, and partition portions of the brain; these are known as _____. _____ acts as a cushioning fluid. The _____ prevents harmful materials from leaving the blood.

Bony cranium; connective tissue; meninges; cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); blood-brain barrier

The cranial meninges refer to layers of _____ that separate the soft tissue of the brain from the _____ of the cranium, enclose and protect _____ that supply the brain, and contain and circulate _____. Some parts form _____ that drain blood from the brain. The three cranial meninges from deep to superficial are the _____, _____, and _____.

Connective tissue; bones; blood vessels; CSF; veins; pia mater; arachnoid mater; dura mater

The pia mater is the _____ layer of the cranial meninges. This layer is made of _____. It is highly _____ and tightly adheres to the _____.

Deepest; areolar connective tissue; vascularize; brain

The arachnoid mater is the _____ layer of the meninges. This layer is made of _____ and _____ that form the _____. The space in between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the _____.

Middle; collagen fibers; elastic fibers; arachnoid trabeculae; subarachnoid space

The dura mater is the _____ layer of the meninges. This layer is made of _____, making it the _____ of the meninges. The dura mater consists of two separate layers: the _____ layer and the _____ layer. These layers are usually fused together, except in specific areas known as _____, where the layers separate to form large, blood-filled spaces that function to _____ and transport blood to the _____. The space in between the dura mater and arachnoid mater is known as the _____.

Superficial; dense irregular connective tissue; strongest; periosteal; meningeal; dural venous sinuses; drain blood from the brain; internal jugular veins; subdural space

The periosteal layer of the dura mater is _____ and interacts with the _____ on the internal surface of the cranial bones. 

Superficial; periosteum

The meningeal layer of the dura mater is _____. The meningeal layer extends into the cranial cavity at _____, separating specific parts of the brain and providing additional stabilization and support to the brain. The largest dura septa is the _____, a vertical fold separating the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The _____ is a horizontal fold separating the occipital and temporal lobes of the cerebrum from the cerebellum. The _____ is a vertical fold separating the left and right cerebellar hemispheres.

Deep; cranial dura septa; falx cerebri; tentorium cerebelli; falx cerebelli

T/F: The subdural space is normally not a real space.

True, except in cases of subdural hematoma

Ventricles refer to _____/_____ within the brain. These ventricles are continuous with _____ and the _____. All of the ventricles contain _____. Two _____ ventricles are found in the cerebrum and are separated by the _____. Each of these ventricles communicates with a _____ ventricle through the _____, found in the center of the brain. The _____ passes through the midbrain and connects the previous ventricle with the _____ ventricle, found between the pons/medulla and the cerebellum. This last ventricle narrows at the inferior end before it merges with the _____.

Cavities/expansions; one another; central canal of the spinal cord; cerebrospinal fluid; lateral; septum pellucidum; third; interventricular foramen; cerebral aqueduct; fourth; central canal of the spinal cord

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid that circulates in the _____ and _____. CSF bathes the exposed surfaces of the CNS and completely surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

Ventricles; subarachnoid space

CSF functions in _____, allowing the brain to float and preventing the brain from sinking through the foramen magnum. CSF also functions in _____, as it acts as a liquid cushion to protect delicate neural structures from sudden movements. CSF also functions in _____, as it transports nutrients and chemicals to the brain and removes waste products from the brain, as well as prevents chemical fluctuations that would disrupt neuron function. Waste products and excess CSF are eventually transported into the _____, where they are filtered from the blood and secreted in the urine.

Buoyancy; protection; environmental stability

CSF is formed by the _____ in each _____. This structure is composed of a layer of _____ cells and capillaries that lie within the _____. _____ from the capillaries is filtered and modified by these cells.

Choroid plexus; ventricle; ependymal; pia mater; blood plasma

CSF circulates through and eventually leaves the _____ and enters the _____. _____ help to expel excess CSF from this space, relieving _____ and CSF to return to the blood within the _____.

Ventricles; subarachnoid space; arachnoid villi; pressure; dural venous sinuses

Nervous tissue is protected from the general circulation by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which strictly regulates what substances can enter the _____ of the brain. _____ cells of the capillaries, their continuous _____, _____ between adjacent cells (that help reduce capillary permeability and prevent materials from diffusing across capillary wall), and _____ of _____ cells (which act as gatekeepers that permit materials to pass to the neurons after leaving capillaries) enveloping the capillaries contribute to the BBB. Usually only _____ compounds can diffuse into the interstitial fluid of the brain.

Interstitial fluid; endothelial; basement membrane; tight junctions; perivascular feet; astrocyte; lipid-soluble

The cerebrum is the location of _____ and the origin of all _____, including intelligence, reasoning, sensory perception, thought, memory, judgement, and voluntary activities.

Conscious thought processes; complex intellectual functions

The cerebrum has an outer layer of _____ (known as the _____) and an inner layer of _____. The surface of the cerebrum folds into _____ that are separated by _____, which allow a greater amount of cortex to fit into the cranial cavity. Deep to the inner layer are discrete regions of _____ called _____.

Gray matter; cerebral cortex; white matter; gyri; fissures; gray matter; cerebral nuclei

The left and right cerebral hemispheres are separated by a deep _____. The cerebral hemispheres are separate from one another, except where _____ (bundles of axons in the CNS) form regions of _____ that allow for communication between the hemispheres. The _____ is the largest of these connecting the two hemispheres. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into five anatomically and functionally distinct _____.

Longitudinal fissure; tracts; white matter; corpus callosum; lobes

The frontal lobe lies deep to the _____ and forms the _____ part of the cerebral hemisphere. The frontal lobe is responsible for _____, _____, and _____ like concentration, decision-making, planning, and personality. The _____ is the posterior boundary between the frontal lobe and _____. The _____ is a mass of nervous tissue immediately anterior to this structure. The _____ is the inferior boundary between the frontal lobe, _____, and _____. Cortices located in the frontal lobe include the _____ (within the _____), the _____, the _____/_____ (usually on the _____ frontal lobe), and _____.

Frontal bone; anterior; voluntary motor functions; verbal communication; higher intellectual functions; central sulcus; parietal lobe; precentral gyrus; lateral sulcus; parietal lobe; temporal lobe; primary motor cortex; precentral gyrus; premotor cortex; motor speech/Broca’s area; frontal eye fields

The parietal lobe lies deep to the _____ and forms the _____ of each hemisphere. The parietal lobe functions in _____ (e.g. texture, shape), _____ speech, and _____ to express thoughts and emotion. The _____ is the posterior boundary between the _____ and parietal lobe. The _____ is a mass of nervous tissue immediately posterior to this structure. The _____ is the posterior boundary between the parietal lobe and _____. The _____ is the inferior boundary between the _____, parietal lobe, and _____. Cortices located within the parietal lobe include the _____ (within the _____), _____, and part of _____.

Parietal bone; superoposterior; general sensory functions; understanding; formulating words; central sulcus; frontal lobe; postcentral gyrus; parieto-occipital sulcus; occipital lobe; lateral sulcus; frontal lobe; temporal lobe; primary somatosensory cortex; postcentral gyrus; somatosensory association area; Wernicke’s area

The temporal lobe underlies the _____ and lies inferior to the _____. The temporal lobe functions in _____, _____, and _____ speech. Cortices within the temporal lobe include the _____, _____, _____, and part of _____.

Temporal bone; lateral sulcus; hearing; smell; understanding; primary auditory cortex; primary olfactory cortex; auditory association area; Wernicke’s area

The occipital lobe underlies the _____ and forms the _____ region of each hemisphere. The occipital lobes functions to process incoming _____ information, _____ the eyes, and store _____. Cortices within the occipital lobe include the _____ and _____.

Occipital bone; posterior; visual; focus; visual memories; primary visual cortex; visual association areas

The insula is a small lobe deep to the _____. The insula functions in _____ awareness, _____ responses (e.g. _____), _____, and _____. Cortices within the insula include the _____.

Lateral sulcus; interoceptive; emotional; empathy; taste; memory; primary gustatory cortex

Cortical areas within the _____ generally control motor functions.

Frontal lobe

The primary motor cortex is located within the _____. Neurons in the primary motor cortex control _____. Axons of these neurons project _____ to the brainstem and spinal cord, meaning that _____.

Precentral gyrus; voluntary skeletal muscle activity; contralaterally; the left primary motor cortex controls the right side of the body, and vice versa

The motor speech area is located within the inferolateral portion of the _____. Neurons in the motor speech area control the _____.

Left frontal lobe; muscular movements necessary for vocalization

The primary motor cortical regions are connected to adjacent _____ that coordinate _____. The premotor cortex is located immediately anterior to the _____. Neurons in the premotor cortex coordinate _____, _____ motor activity, like _____.

Association areas; discrete skeletal muscle movements; precentral gyrus; learned; skilled; playing the guitar

Cortical areas within the _____, _____, and _____ are generally involved with _____ awareness of sensation.

Parietal; temporal; occipital; conscious

The primary somatosensory cortex is located within the _____ of the _____. Neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex receive general sensory information from _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Postcentral gyrus; parietal lobes; touch; temperature; pressure; pain

The somatosensory association area is located within the _____ and lies posterior to the _____. Neurons in the somatosensory association area _____ sensations to determine the texture, temperature, pressure, and shape of objects.

Parietal lobe; primary somatosensory cortex; interpret

The primary visual cortex is located within the _____. Neurons in the primary visual cortex _____, _____, and _____ incoming visual information.

Occipital lobe; receive; process; store

The visual association area is located within the _____ and surrounds the _____. Neurons in the visual association area _____ visual information to identify the things we see.

Occipital lobe; primary visual cortex; interpret

The primary auditory cortex is located within the _____. Neurons in the primary auditory cortex _____, _____, and _____ auditory information.

Temporal lobe; receive; process; store

The auditory association area is located within the _____ and lies posteroinferior to the _____. Neurons in the auditory association area _____ sounds and compare them to sounds heard in the past.

Temporal lobe; primary auditory cortex; interpret

The primary olfactory cortex is located within the _____. Neurons in the primary olfactory cortex _____, _____, and _____ odor information.

Temporal lobe; receive; process; store

The primary gustatory cortex is located within the _____. Neurons in the primary gustatory cortex _____, _____, and _____ taste information.

Insula; receive; process; store

Functional brain regions refer to multi-association areas between lobes for _____. The prefrontal cortex forms the anterior portion of the _____ and is responsible for _____. _____ is only found within the _____ hemisphere and overlaps the _____ and _____. This area is responsible for recognizing, understanding, and comprehending _____.

Integrating information from individual association areas; frontal lobe; intellectual functions; Wernicke’s area; left; parietal lobe; temporal lobe; language

Contralateral innervation is true for the _____ and _____ cortex (i.e. _____ body parts).

Motor; somatosensory; somatic

Central white matter lies deep to the _____ of the _____ and is composed primarily of _____. Most of these actions are bundled into three types of _____: _____, _____, and _____.

Gray matter; cerebral cortex; myelinated axons; tracts; association; commisural; projection

_____ refer to portions of _____  that connect different regions of the cerebral cortex within the same hemisphere. An example is the connection between the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe and motor association area of the frontal lobe.

Association tracts; central white matter

_____ refer to portions of _____ that extend between the cerebral hemispheres to connect corresponding lobes. An example is the _____.

Commissural tracts; central white matter; corpus callosum

_____ link the cerebral cortex to the inferior brain regions (_____, _____, and _____) and the _____.

Projection tracts; diencephalon; brainstem; cerebellum; spinal cord

_____ refer to paired, irregular masses of gray matter buried deep within the central white matter.

Cerebral nuclei

The diencephalon is sandwiched between the inferior regions of the _____. The diencephalon provides the _____ and _____ centers for some sensory and motor pathways and for control of _____ activities.

Cerebral hemispheres; relay; switching; visceral

The _____ forms the posterior roof of the diencephalon and covers the _____. This area houses the _____, an endocrine gland that secretes _____ to regulate the body’s _____.

Epithalamus; third ventricle; pineal gland; melatonin; circadian rhythm

The _____ refer to paired oval masses of _____ that lie on each side of the _____. The _____ refers to a small, midline mass of _____ that connects the _____.

Thalamus; gray matter; third ventricle; interthalamic adhesion; gray matter; right and left thalamic bodies

The _____ is the anterior and inferior region of the diencephalon.The _____ extends inferiorly to attach to the _____.

Hypothalamus; infundibulum; pituitary gland

The hypothalamus is in master control of the _____ nervous system, controlling _____, _____, _____, and _____. The hypothalamus is also in master control of the _____ system, as normal secretions from the _____ control things like metabolism, growth, stress responses, and reproduction. The hypothalamus also helps to regulate _____ through shivering and sweating. The hypothalamus also controls _____, creating pleasure, aggression, fear, etc. The hypothalamus also controls _____, creating feelings of hunger, and _____, helping to monitor blood solute concentration. The hypothalamus is also responsible for _____ via melatonin.

Autonomic; blood pressure; heart rate; respiration; digestion; endocrine; pituitary; body temperature; emotional behavior; food intake; water intake; circadian rhythm

The brainstem connects the _____ and _____ to the _____. The brainstem is a _____ passageway for all _____ extending between the _____ and _____. The brainstem contains many _____ and _____ centers responsible for our survival, as well as the _____ of many of the _____.

Diencephalon; cerebellum; spinal cord; bidirectional; tracts; cerebrum; spinal cord; autonomic; reflex; nuclei; cranial nerves

The midbrain is the _____ portion of the brainstem. The _____ extends through the midbrain and connects the _____ and _____. _____ are motor tracts located on the anterolateral surfaces of the midbrain. _____ connect the cerebrum to the midbrain. The _____ houses clusters of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter _____, which affects movement, emotional responses, and ability to experience pleasure and pain. The _____ contains two pairs of sensory nuclei that act as relay stations in the processing of visual and auditory sensations. _____ refer to superior nuclei that contribute to _____, while _____ refer to inferior nuclei that contribute to _____.

Superior; cerebral aqueduct; third ventricle; fourth ventricle; cerebral peduncles; superior cerebellar peduncles; substantia nigra; dopamine; tectum; superior colliculi; visual reflex centers; inferior colliculi; auditory reflex centers

The pons refers to a _____ region on the _____ part of the brainstem. _____ and _____ are housed within the pons. _____ connect the pons to the cerebellum. The _____ regulates the skeletal muscles of breathing.

Bulging; anterior; sensory tracts; motor tracts; middle cerebellar peduncles; pontine respiratory center

The medulla oblongata is the _____ part of the brainstem that is continuous with the _____. _____ refer to ridges on the anterior surface that contain _____. These cross over to the opposite side of the brain at _____. _____ refer to tracts that connect the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum. 

Inferior; spinal cord; pyramids; motor projection tracts; decussation of the pyramids; inferior cerebellar peduncles

The medulla oblongata houses a number of _____. The _____ regulates heart rate and strength of contraction. The _____ regulates blood pressure by controlling the diameter of arterioles. The _____ regulates respiratory rate and is influenced by the _____ of the _____.

Autonomic centers; cardiac center; vasomotor center; medullary respiratory center; pontine respiratory center; pons

The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain. The outer _____ consists of _____ separated by folds known as _____. The internal region of _____ is known as _____. There is also a section of deep _____. The left and right cerebellar hemispheres are separated by the _____, creating anterior and posterior lobes separated by the _____.

Cortex; gray matter; folia; white matter; arbor vitae; gray matter; vermis; primary fissure

Cerebellar peduncles link the cerebellum with the _____. The superior cerebellar peduncle connects to the _____, the middle cerebellar peduncle connects to the _____, and the inferior cerebellar peduncle connects to the _____. These allow the cerebellum to _____ skeletal muscle movement and interpret _____ movement.

Brainstem; midbrain; pons; medulla oblongata; fine-tune; proprioceptive

All connections within the brain consist of _____.

Axons

A sinus is a structure that collects _____ and returns it to the _____/_____.

Blood; circulation/venous system

The spinal cord extends inferiorly from the _____, through the _____ and _____, and ends at the inferior border of the _____.

Medulla oblongata; foramen magnum; vertebral canal; L1 vertebra

The five regions of the spinal cord, from superior to inferior, are the _____, _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Cervical part; thoracic part; lumbar part; sacral part; coccygeal part

T/F: The cervical part of the spinal cord is continuous with the medulla oblongata.

True

Different parts of the spinal cord do not match up exactly with the vertebrae of the same name because _____.

The spinal cord in an adult is shorter than the vertebral canal

The _____ refers to the inferior end of the spinal cord. The _____ refers to nerve roots that project inferiorly from the spinal cord. The _____ refers to a thin strand of _____ that helps anchor the _____ to the _____. The _____ dips internally on the posterior surface. The _____ is a slightly wider groove on the anterior surface. The _____ contains the neurons that innervate the upper limbs. The _____ innervates the lower limbs.

Conus medullaris; cauda equina; filum terminale; conus medullaris; coccyx; posterior median sulcus; anterior median fissure; cervical enlargement; lumbosacral enlargement

The spinal cord is protected and encapsulated by _____, which are continuous with the _____.

Spinal cord meninges; cranial meninges

Structures and spaces within the spinal cord (both real and potential) from superficial to deep are as follows: _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, and _____.

Vertebra; epidural space; dura mater; subdural space; arachnoid mater; subarachnoid space; pia mater

The epidural space of the spinal cord lies between the _____ covering the inner walls of the vertebra and the _____. This space consists of _____, _____, and _____.

Periosteum; dura mater; areolar connective tissue; adipose connective tissue; blood vessels

The dura mater is the most _____ of the spinal meninges and is found deep to the _____. It extends between adjacent vertebrae at the _____ and fuses with connective tissue that surrounds the spinal nerves.

Superficial; epidural space; intervertebral foramen

The subdural space of the spinal cord is a type of _____ space that separates the _____ from the _____.

Potential; dura mater; arachnoid mater

The subarachnoid space of the spinal cord is a type of _____ space that is deep to the _____. It is filled with _____.

Real; arachnoid mater; CSF

The pia mater of the spinal cord is found deep to the _____. It consists of _____ and _____.

Subarachnoid space; elastic fibers; collagen fibers

The spinal cord is partitioned into an outer region of _____ and inner region of _____. The gray matter is dominated by _____, _____, _____, and _____. The white matter is dominated by _____.

White matter; gray matter; dendrites; neuron cell bodies; glial cells; unmyelinated axons; myelinated axons

_____ refer to left and right anterior masses of gray matter within the spinal cord. These house the _____ of _____ neurons, which innervate _____.

Anterior horns; cell bodies; somatic motor; skeletal muscle

_____ of the spinal cord only occur in T1 to L2. These house the _____ of _____ neurons, which innervate _____, _____, and _____.

Lateral horns; cell bodies; autonomic motor; cardiac muscle; smooth muscle; glands

_____ refer to left and right posterior masses of gray matter within the spinal cord. These house the _____ of _____ neurons and the _____ of _____.

Posterior horns; axons; sensory; cell bodies; interneurons

_____ is a bar of gray matter that surround a narrow _____. This is considered the communication route between _____.

Gray commissure; central canal; left and right sides of gray matter

C4, C8, and L4 have more gray matter in their anterior horn to help innervate the _____.

Limbs

The _____ is responsible for routing all incoming sensory information to the correct area of the cerebrum/cerebral cortex.

Thalamus

Sensory neurons/nuclei in the _____ of the spinal cord contain the _____ of _____. Somatic sensory nuclei receive information from sensory receptors in the _____, while visceral sensory nuclei receive information from sensory receptors in the _____.

Posterior horns; cell bodies; interneurons; skin; viscera

Motor neurons/nuclei in the _____ and _____ of the spinal cord contain the _____ of _____ that send nerve impulses to _____ and _____. Somatic motor nuclei in the _____ innervate _____, while autonomic motor nuclei in the _____ innervate _____, _____, and _____.

Anterior horns; lateral horns; cell bodies; motor neurons; muscles; glands; anterior horns; skeletal muscle; lateral horns; cardiac muscle; smooth muscle; glands

White matter on each side of the spinal cord is partitioned into _____. The _____ lies between the posterior gray horns and the posterior median sulcus. The _____ lies between the anterior and posterior horns. The _____ is composed of _____ of _____ that occupy the space between the anterior gray horns and the anterior median fissure.

Funiculi; posterior funiculus; lateral funiculus; anterior funiculus; tracts; white matter

Reflexes are _____, _____, and _____ responses of muscles or glands to a stimulus.

Rapid; pre-programmed; involuntary

A reflex arc refers to the neural circuit of a _____ reflex. A _____ (e.g. temperature, pressure, tactile changes) activates a _____. A nerve impulse then travels through a _____ to the _____. Information from the nerve impulse is processed in the _____ by _____. In the simplest reflexes, the _____ synapses directly on a _____ in the _____ of the _____ and does not use an _____. A _____ then transmits the nerve impulse to an _____, which responds to the nerve impulse.

Single; stimulus; sensory receptor; sensory neuron; CNS; integration center; interneurons; sensory neuron; motor neuron; anterior gray horn; spinal cord; interneuron; motor neuron; effector