Final exam

Definition of biology

the study of life

definition of science

knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method

definition of organism

an individual living entity

Definition of population

all individuals in a population

definition of community

a set of populations inhabiting a particular area

definition hypothesis

a suggested explanation for an event, which can be tested ,

definition of theory

 a thoroughly tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena

Archaea

are single celled organisms without nuclei and include manu extremophiles that live in harsh environments like hot springs

Bacteria

Eukarya

definiton of atom

a basic unit of matter that cannot be broken down by normal chemical reactions,

the subatomic particles and the property of protons, neutrons, and electrons/ composition of nucleus of an atom

it is composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons, protons have a positive charge neutrons have no charge and electrons have a negative charge, 

Definitions of elements

one of 118 unique substances that cannot be broken down into smaller substances and retain the characteristic of that substance; each element has a specified number of protons and unique properties

Definition of compounds

a substance formed by chemically combining two or more different elements in fixed proportions

definition of covalent bonds

a type of strong bond between two or more of the same or different elements; forms when electrons are shared between element , examples water and hydrogen gas

defintion of ionic bonds

a chemical bond that forms between ions of opposite examples sodium chloride

definition of hydrogen bonds

a weak bond between partially positively charged hydrogen atoms and partially negatively charged elements or molecules examples DNA

Is NaCL covalent or ionic

ionic

4 major elements in our body

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen

The three main properties of water, density of water at 3 different states

Liquid solid gas

Definition of polar covalent bond

a type of covalent bond in which electrons are pulled toward one atom and away from another, resulting in slightly positive and slightly negative charged regions of the molecule

non polar covalent bond

a type of covalent bond that forms between atoms when electrons are shared equally between atoms, resulting in no regions with partial charges as in polar covalent bonds

The pH range (the three types)

Acidic neutral basic

What makes a substance an acidic or base

A substance is considered an acid if it donates hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water

what causes ocean acidification

decrease in pH levels within the ocean, primarily due to the release and absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation

defintion of organic molecule

chemical compound that contains a carbon–hydrogen or carbon–carbon bond

what is being added or removed in condensation and hydrolysis

In condensation, a water molecule is removed when two smaller molecules combine to form a larger one, while in hydrolysis, a water molecule is added to break down a larger molecule into smaller ones

4 major micromolecules

carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, and nucleotides

major macromolecules and functions

complex carbohydrates (starch, glycogen; storage carbo., cellulose, chitin; structural carbo.) , proteins build msucle, nucleic acids make genetic material

4 common structures shared between the prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material (DNA)

Structures/functions of prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes

Prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, lack a nucleus and complex organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and various specialized organelles like mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum

Structures/functions of prokaryotes (bacteria) and eukaryotes

Prokaryotic cells, like bacteria, lack a nucleus and complex organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and various specialized organelles like mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum

What structures distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic

eukaryotic has a nucleus

Equation of cellular respiration

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 --> 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + ATP

How do cells extract energy from fuel molecules?

cellular respiration

What chemical characteristic of the element oxygen accounts for its function in cellular respiration?

ability to act as a strong final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain

3 main stages of cellular respiration; location, products per significance of each stage

glycolysis (cytoplasm), the Krebs cycle (mitochondrial matrix), and the electron transport chain (inner mitochondrial membrane)

2 types of fermentations;

lactic acid and alcohol

Does fermentation itself produce ATPs?

No

Proteins and fats can be used a fuel for cellular respiration?

by breaking down into molecules that can be used to produce ATP

What is a final electron acceptor in cellular respiration?

the final electron acceptor is oxygen.

Major pigment responsible for plant leaves being green. What colors of wavelengths from sunlight do chlorophylls absorb which turn the leaves green?

blue and red

Location of light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions.

light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoids, and light-independent reactions (also known as dark reactions or the Calvin cycle), which take place in the stroma

Equation of photosynthesis

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Location of Calvin cycle in C3, C4, and CAM plants

In C3 plants, the Calvin cycle occurs in the mesophyll cells of the leaf, while in C4 plants, it takes place specifically within the bundle sheath cells, and in CAM plants, the Calvin cycle also happens in the mesophyll cells

when do CAM plants close stomata and do Calvin cycle?

during the day time

How C4 and CAM plants adapt to hot and dry climate to avoid photorespiration?

concentrating carbon dioxide around the enzyme Rubisco through specialized leaf structures and temporal mechanisms

cell cycle and sequential events in cell division (Interphase, PMAT)

during Interphase, the cell grows, replicates its DNA, and prepares for division, while the PMAT stages involve the actual separation of chromosomes into two distinct nuclei

At telophase, what forms to initiate separation of one to two cells (animal and plant cells?)

a cleavage furrow

3 sources of genetic variations (know the event at the specific phase)

prophase I (crossing-over), metaphase I (law of independent assortment), and random fertilization.

Know major event(s) at prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and anaphase II.  Know chromosome numbers at each phase.

During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through crossing over; in metaphase I, homologous chromosome pairs line up at the equator of the cell; in anaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles; and in anaphase II, sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles, with the chromosome number remaining the same throughout meiosis I (diploid) and halving during meiosis II (haploid) at anaphase II.

Chromosome abnormality; deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

A chromosome abnormality refers to a change in the structure of a chromosome, where a portion of the chromosome can be deleted (missing), duplicated (extra copies), inverted (flipped around), or translocated (moved to another chromosome), leading to potential genetic disorders depending on the affected genes.

Nondisjunction

the failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.

down syndrome (trisomy 21)

a genetic disorder that occurs when a person has an extra copy of chromosome 21

turner syndrome (what’s absent?)

a female is missing all or part of an X chromosome

Central dogma of gene expression (3 steps)

DNA replication (copying DNA to make more DNA), transcription (copying DNA into RNA), and translation (using RNA to build proteins)

The conclusion from Griffith’s experiment

bacteria can transfer genetic material through a process called "transformation,

Hershey and Chase’s experiment using T2 and E. coli; the experiment proved what about genetic material? Was it protein or DNA? Also, what is bacteriophage?

The Hershey-Chase experiment, using bacteriophage T2 and E. coli, proved that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material.

Watson and Crick; what did they found? What is the significance of their finding about DNA?

that the sequence of DNA bases defined the genes contained within DNA

Differences between DNA and RNA ( # strands, sugar composition, and nucleotides)

DNA contains deoxyribose sugar while RNA contains ribose sugar, DNA nucleotides include thymine as a base, whereas RNA nucleotides contain uracil instead of thymine

Definition of a gene

the physical and functional unit of heredity; a sequence of DNA that codes for a specific peptide or RNA molecule

the process/definition of transcription and translation, know the location of these between prok. and euk.

in prokaryotes, both processes occur in the cytoplasm, whereas in eukaryotes, transcription happens in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm

function of tRNA and ribosome

tRNA acts as a "translator" by carrying specific amino acids to the ribosome

mutation, mutagens, nucleotide substitution (silent, missense, nonsense mutation)

A mutation is a change in DNA, and a nucleotide substitution is a type of mutation that occurs when a nucleotide in a gene sequence is replaced by another

frameshift mutation (nucleotide insertions/deletions)

a genetic mutation that occurs when one or more nucleotides are inserted or deleted from a DNA sequence, causing a shift in the "reading frame" and drastically altering the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein

label