MSU PSY 209 Final Exam

Dr. Johnson PSY 209

CNS

Central Nervous System, which includes the brain and spinal cord, acting as the main processing center.

Forebrain

The largest and most anterior part of the brain, consisting of the Telencephalon and Diencephalon, responsible for higher cognitive functions and sensory perception.

Telencephalon

Part of the forebrain that includes the cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system, involved in complex cognitive processes, memory, and emotion.

Cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex functions like thought, perception, language, and decision-making.

Basal ganglia

A group of structures in the forebrain crucial for the initiation and control of voluntary movement and reward-motivated behaviors.

Limbic system

A set of structures in the brain associated with emotion, motivation, and memory formation.

Diencephalon

Part of the forebrain that includes the thalamus and hypothalamus, serving as a relay and control center for sensory and autonomic functions.

Thalamus

A brain structure that acts as a major relay station for most sensory information before it reaches the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

A brain region controlling various autonomic functions and homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

Mesencephalon

Also known as the midbrain, involved in relaying sensory and motor information, vision, hearing, and motor control.

Hindbrain

A section of the brain that includes the brainstem (pons and medulla) and cerebellum, essential for vital autonomic functions and motor coordination.

Metencephalon

Part of the hindbrain that includes the pons and cerebellum, involved in coordinating motor commands and regulating sleep and respiration.

Cerebellum

A brain structure responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, maintaining posture, balance, and motor learning.

Pons

A structure in the hindbrain, part of the brainstem, involved in communication between different parts of the brain and regulating sleep and respiration.

Myelencephalon

Also known as the medulla oblongata, responsible for essential autonomic functions vital for survival like breathing and heart rate.

Resting potential

The stable difference in electric charge (typically around -70 mV) across a neuron's membrane when not firing, maintained by ion distribution.

Diffusion

The passive movement of ions through ion channels from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration.

Sodium (Na+)

A positively charged ion primarily found outside the neuron, whose influx is crucial for initiating an action potential.

Potassium (K+)

A positively charged ion primarily found inside the neuron, which influences the negative resting potential through its outflow.

Membrane permeability

The ability of the cell membrane to selectively allow certain ions to pass through, determined by ion channels.

Leak potassium channels

Ion channels that are open during the resting state, allowing K+ to slowly flow out of the neuron, helping maintain the negative resting potential.

Electrostatic pressure

The force that drives ions across a membrane based on their electrical charge, attracting opposite charges and repelling like charges.

Sodium-potassium pump

An active transport mechanism that uses ATP to pump three sodium ions out and two potassium ions into the cell, maintaining concentration gradients.

Hyperpolarization

An increase in the negative charge inside a neuron's membrane, making it less likely to fire an action potential, often by K+ efflux or Cl- influx.

Ghrelin

A hormone produced by the stomach that signals hunger to the brain, with levels rising before meals.

Leptin

A hormone produced by fat cells that signals satiety and suppresses appetite by communicating with the brain.

Long term potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength following high-frequency stimulation, considered a cellular mechanism for learning and memory.

AMPA receptors

Ionotropic glutamate receptors that mediate fast excitatory synaptic transmission by allowing sodium ions to flow into the postsynaptic neuron.

Glutamate

The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, critical for learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity.

GABA

The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, which reduces neuronal excitability by increasing chloride influx or potassium efflux.

NMDA receptor

A type of glutamate receptor that requires both glutamate binding and membrane depolarization to open, allowing calcium ions to enter the neuron and playing a key role in LTP.

Calcium (Ca2+)

An ion that enters the cell during synaptic transmission, particularly through NMDA receptors, triggering intracellular events crucial for LTP and neurotransmitter release.

Optogenetics

A technique using light to control genetically modified neurons that express light-sensitive proteins, allowing precise study of neural circuits.

Epigenetics

The study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without altering the DNA sequence, influencing brain development and function.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death, a normal and regulated process essential for development, tissue maintenance, and eliminating damaged cells.

Saltatory conduction

The rapid propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons, where the signal 'jumps' from one Node of Ranvier to the next, speeding up transmission.

Dopamine transporter

A protein that reuptakes dopamine from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, regulating its concentration and action.

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Symptoms representing an excess or distortion of normal functions, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech.

Cranial nerves

Twelve pairs of nerves emerging directly from the brain, responsible for various sensory, motor, and autonomic functions in the head and neck.

Taste systems

Sensory systems responsible for detecting the five basic taste qualities (sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami) through specialized receptors on taste buds.

Inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)

A change in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron that makes it less likely to fire, typically by hyperpolarization or stabilization via inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt its structure and function in response to experience, learning, development, or injury.

Phineas Gage

A historical case study of a man who survived a severe brain injury to his frontal lobe, leading to profound changes in personality and social conduct.

Tracing techniques

Neuroanatomical methods used to map the connections and pathways in the brain by observing the transport of injected substances.

Anterograde tracer

A substance used to trace neural pathways from the cell body along the axon to its terminals, identifying efferent projections.

Retrograde tracer

A substance used to trace neural pathways from axon terminals back to the cell body, identifying afferent inputs to a region.

Connectivity

The intricate network of structural and functional links describing how different parts of the brain communicate and interact.

Synapse

The specialized junction where communication occurs between two neurons, consisting of a presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane.

Synaptic plasticity

The ability of synaptic strength to change over time in response to activity, a fundamental process underlying learning and memory.

Hallucinations

Perceptions that feel real but occur without an external stimulus, often seen in disorders like schizophrenia.