AP Psychology Unit 2 Part 2

Intelligence

ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

g (General Intelligence)

underlies all mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test

Multiple Intelligences

theory suggests that individuals posses different types of intelligence beyond traditional measures, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences

Growth Mindset

the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort

Fixed Mindset

the belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

numerical measure of an individual's cognitive abilities compared to others in their age group, typically assessed through standardized tests.

Mental Age

the level of performance typically associated with a certain chronological age

Standardization

the process of establishing consistent testing procedures and norms for administering and scoring psychological assessments.

Achievement Tests

asses a person's knowledge or skills in a specific area, such as academic subjects or job-related tasks. They measure what an individual has learned/accomplished.

Aptitude Tests

measure a person's potential for learning or mastering specific skills or tasks in the future. They assess innate abilities and predict future performance.

Validity ("Very Accurate")

The extent to which a test accurately measures what it is intended to measure.

Construct Validity

checks if a test really measures what it's supposed to. It helps make sure the test gives the right results for what it's trying to find out.

Predictive Validity

shows how well a test can forecast future outcomes or behaviors. It measures if test scores can predict future performance accurately.

Reliability ("Repeat Results")

consistency in test results over time and among different scorers. It assures that a test yields stable and dependable measurements.

Test-Retest Reliability

assesses consistency by administering the same test to the same group twice. It measures how stable scores are over time

Split-Half Reliability

divides a test into two halves and compares scores between them. It measures internal consistency by checking if both halves yield similar results.

Flynn Effect

the trend of average IQ scores increasing over generations. It suggests a rise in general intelligence due to environmental and cultural factors (ex. rise of education)

Stereotype Threat

the phenomenon where individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

Stereotype Lift

the opposite of stereotype threat, occurs when individuals from stereotypically advantaged groups perform better on tests due to the positive expectations associated with their group.

Factor Analysis

statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly, like when solving logic problems

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, as reflected in vocabulary and applied skills

Cattel-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc

Savant Syndrome

condition where someone with limited mental ability has an exceptional specific skill

Intelligence Test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

Content Validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

the first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain (can be visual, acoustic, or semantic)

Storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time

Retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

Multi-Store Model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory & Long-term Memory.

Sensory Memory (Register)

The initial stage of memory that holds sensory information for a very brief period. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds

Iconic Memory

memory that briefly holds visual images. It captures a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a before it fades.

Echoic Memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

Short-Term Memory

Temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15-30 seconds. It has a limited capacity

Long-Term Memory

the stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with virtually unlimited capacity. It allows for the long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts.

Working Memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short-term memory and long-term memory combine

Central Executive

the control center of working memory. It manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from our senses and long-term memory.

Phonological Loop

component of working memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

component of working memory that handles visual and spatial information. Allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationships, enabling navigation, geometry, etc.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

long lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. This is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory

Effortful Processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks

Levels of Processing Model

proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered

Shallow Encoding

a basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning.

Structural

type of processing that focuses on the physical structure of information

Phonemic

shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

Deep Encoding

Involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge.

Chunking (Grouping)

Memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

Categories (Grouping)

Grouping information into categories that share common attributes.

Hierarchies (Grouping)

Starting with general categories and working down to specific examples.

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

Explicit (Declarative) Memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

Semantic Memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

Episodic Memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

Autobiographical Memory

Type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life. (combines Episodic and Semantic)

Implicit Memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically.

Procedural Memory

type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

Prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point

Massed Practice ("Cramming")

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks.

Spacing Effect ("Distributed Practice")

phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spread out over time, rather than crammed into one session

Maintenance Rehearsal

Learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind. They play a crucial role in the process of retrieving memories and can be external or internal

External Cues

environmental factors or objects that trigger memories

Internal Cues

Thoughts or feelings associated with the original learning.

Recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues

Recognition

type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented. It includes familiarity and identification

Familiarity

sensing that something has been encountered before

Identification

matching new information with stored knowledge

Context-Dependent Memory

when you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it

State-Dependent Memory

the phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

Mood-Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood

Serial Position Effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle