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scientific attitude
curiosity, skepticism, humility
curiosity
a strong desire to know or learn something
Skepticism
A philosophy which suggests that nothing can ever be known for certain; have some doubt when approaching an issue
humility
researchers must be willing to be surprised and follow new ideas
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind; Unreliable as it depends on the person's intelligence and the experience of doing something varied; TITCHENER and WUNDT
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish; WILLIAM JAMES
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; ex: the rat experiments; SKINNER and WATSON
Freudian Psychology
emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior
Humanistic
emphasizes human growth potential; ROGERS and MASLOW
Evolutionary Perspective
This perspective takes the stance that behaviors came into existence as a result of adaptations to living conditions; ex: humans naturally dislike and fear snakes and spiders bc they're poisonous
Behavioral Perspective
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior that have been learned
neuroscience
How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; subfields: biological, cognitive, clinical
psychodynamic
How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts; subfields: clinical, counseling, personality
cognitive
how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information; industrial-organizational, counseling, clinical,
behavior genetics
How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences; subfields: personality, developmental, legal/forensic
social-cultural
how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures; developmental, social, clinical, counseling
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindy accept arguments and conclusions; examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; I KNEW IT ALL ALONG
overconfidence
humans tend to think we know more than we do
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
availability heuristics
mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision
representative heuristics
similarity of objects or events regarding the probability of an outcome; People make the mistake of believing that two similar things or events are more closely correlated than they actually are; stereotypes
belief perseverance
Tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of that belief; pride
confirmation bias
looking for info that supports your view while ignoring those that don't
framing effect
A cognitive bias where people decide on options based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative connotations; One of the strongest biases in decision making; Ex: motivating people by offering people a $5 reward vs. imposing a $5 penalty; People will more likely avoid risks when presented with a positive frame
Research method: descriptive
to observe and record behavior; weaknesses: no control of variables and single cases misleading
Research method: correlational
To detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another; weaknesses: Cannot specify cause and effect
Research method: experimental
to explore cause and effect; weaknesses: Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables
encoding
get information into our brain
effortful processing
encode explicit memories; requires attention and conscious effort; one track out of two
automatic processing
encode unconsciously incidental information
such as: space, time, and frequency, and well-learned information;
encodes implicit memories
Strategies for Remembering: Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Strategies for Remembering: Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Strategies for Remembering: Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Strategies for Remembering: Testing effect
enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered
short term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly; Only 7 items of information can be stored at a time
long term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system;
Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare", conscious; Ex: 2+4=6; what you learn in school
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, automatic and unconscious; Ex: singing a familiar song, typing on your computer, brushing your teeth
Amygdala
in charge of memory consolidation which is the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory; also emotional memories
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
Cerebellum
processing procedural memories
procedural memory
type of implicit memory and long-term memory which aids the performance of particular types of tasks; unconscious
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
priming
the activation of particular associations in memory; unconscious
Memory Storing Process
To-be-remembered info recorded as a sensory memory
Then it's processed as a short-term memory-> encode it through rehearsal
Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval
Sensory memory
works with working memory, records momentary images of scenes and sounds
Iconic memory
a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli; lasts no more than a second
Echoic memory
a fleeting sensory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3-4 seconds
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level; Elementary level such as a word's letters or even a word's sound
Deep processing
encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words
Spacing Effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Classical conditioning
learn to expect and prepare for significant consequences; Pavlov and the dog; associate two stimuli; automatic response to a stimulus
John B. Watson
basis for CC; Psychology should be an objective science, not based on feelings, emotions, or motives; without reference to mental processes->Called "behaviorism"
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning; Ex: the dog didn't associate food with events he could see or hear
Unconditioned response
an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that unconditionally triggers an UR
Conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
an originally neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and triggers a conditioned response
Operant condtioning
learn to repeat acts that bring rewards and avoid acts that bring unwanted results
shaping
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer borders of the desired behavior
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing stimuli
Primary reinforcers
innately reinforcing stimulus; such as one that satisfies a biological need
Conditioned reinforcers
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
Positive: give a stimulus as a punishment
Negative: take a stimulus as a punishment
conditioning processes
acquistion
extinction
spontaneous recovery
generalization
discrimination
acquistion
the strengthening of a reinforced response
extinction
diminishing of a conditioned response or response is no longer enforced
spontaneous recovery
reappearance after a pause of a conditioned response
generalization
tendency, once a response has been conditioned for stimuli similar to the CS to have similar responses
discrimination
learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that does not signal an unconditioned stimulus
operant behavior
depends on environment
reinforcement schedules
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial reinforcement schedules
reinforcing a response only part of the time
fixed-ratio schedules
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedules
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedules
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedules
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
latent learning
A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned; ex: Ex: a student is taught how to perform a special type of addition, but does not demonstrate the knowledge until an important test is administered
Observational learning (BANDURA)
a form of cognitive learning; The acquirement of mental information either by observing events/other or through language (environment)
4 processes of observational learning
Attention
Retention
Production
Motivation
Compound Conditioning
simultaneous conditioning of 2 cues; usually presented at the same time; CR to BOTH S1 and S2 is stronger than ind. stimulus
availability heurisitcs
