Logical Fallacies

AP Lang

False Dilemma- Either/or

Assumes there are only two possible choices (this or that) when there are other choices available

From Ignorance (Ad Ignorantiam)

Based on LACK of evidence (or denial that evidence exists) A variant of false dilemma fallacy, this assumes that a claim is true b/c it has not been proven false (or assumes a claim is false b/c it has not been proven)

Appeal to Pity (Ad Misericordiam)

“Sob Story”- tries to win support for an argument by using pity or sympathy when these feelings are not relevant to the truth or strength of an argument’s conclusion

Bandwagon (Ad Populum)

“Appeal to the crowd”- equates popularity/quantity with quality

Attacking the Man (Ad Hominem)

“Mudslinging”- Ignores the topic under debate and instead attacks the opponent’s character on some irrelevant personal issue

Appeal to force (Ad Baculum)

Unpleasant consequences will follow if they do not agree with the author- can be explicit  **or implicit which is a veiled threat**

Appeals to Consequences (Ad Consequentiam)

Points to the disagreeable consequences of holding a particular belief in order to show that this belief is false

Straw Man

Distorts opponent’s argument to such a point that no one could agree with it

Equivocation

the same word is used with two different meanings

Post Hoc

“After this, therefore b/c of this”- Assumes a cause-and-effect relationship between two events IN THE PAST which occurred in sequence which may not have been *necessarily* related to each other

Non-Sequitur

“It does not follow”- Posits a cause-and-effect relationship which has no logical connection

Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning

Simply restates the question under debate in different words as if it were a settled conclusion

Appeal to Authority– doubtful

Authority presented that may not be trustworthy (ex Dad) or vaguely mentioned (these studies)

Appeal to False Authority

Appeals to an authority who is not a qualified expert on the issue

Anonymous Authority

the authority in question is not named

False Analogy

X has property Y. Z is like X. Z therefore has property Y

Hasty Generalization

Makes assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually b/c it’s atypical or too small)

Slippery Slope

Projects INTO THE FUTURE an inevitable cause-and-effect connection between a series of events which may not occur at all

Loaded/prejudicial Language

Using words or phrases when it has a secondary, evaluating Meaning in addition to its primary, descriptive meaning

Red Herring

Presents an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the original issue and shifts attention away from the argument to another issue

Dicto Simpliciter/Oversimplification

An argument based on an unqualified generalization that either reduce or multiply to the point of no longer genuine