History - Empire, Imperialism challenged 1914-1947

What was the context of Britain’s involvement in WW1? How does it link to empire?

Britain joined ww1 on the 4th of august 1914, the war was fought between the triple entente ‘the allies’ and the triple alliance ‘central powers’. GB declared war on behalf of the empire, the general consensus would be that it would be a short war and that most the fighting would come from Britain with little help from empire. This wasn’t the case

How was empire involved with ww1 overall?

• Colonies and dominions sent 4 million men to support the 5 million men from the British isles

• Empire provided Britain with food, raw materials, and money e.g $100 million given by Indian govt

• Presidents of dominions and nominated indian representatives joined the war cabinet in London 1917 e.g Boer, Jan Smuts

What impacts did white dominions have on the war effort in WW1?

• Huge number of volunteers joined armed forces, 1.2 million overall with 620k from Canada, 420k from Australia, and 100k from New zealand

• Huge battles fought with a majority from empire e.g Gallipoli 1915 mainly fought by AUS and NZ

• Canadian supplied munitions, 1/3rd used by GB in France 1917

• Smuts formed South African Defence force to fight Germany in SW Africa, 136,000 south african troops fought in the middle east and france

What impact did WW1 have on the domions?

• French-Canadian protests in Quebec city in 1918 against conscription, Australia held referendums against conscription in 1916 and 1917

• Strong republican movement in south africa led by J.B.M Hertzog

Overall WW1 increased dominons desire for independence therefore weakening the strength of empire, although no contraction

What support did India give GB in WW1?

• India gave large amounts of support;

  • in autumn 1914, 1/3 of GB troops in France were either Indians or British soldiers who had served in India

  • 1.27 million indians served in ww1, this was on every front

  • $100 million in funds

• The montague declaration from Edwin Montague the sec of state for India, promised india a more responsible self govt including more democratic reps

What support did Britain get from Egypt and Sub-saharan Africans in WW1?

Africa also gave support but not equal treatment

• in august 1914, Egypt was officially made a protectorate, 1.2 million were recruited to serve in the war, 100,000 served in Europe with 50% dying

• 1 million sub-saharans were made to be labourers and carriers in the war

The war sprung up nationalist movements like the uprising in Nyasaland led by John chilembwe

What was the background of post WW1 self determination?

Wilson promoted the principle of self determination in his 14 point plan in 1918, this was supposedly the basis of peace treaties after ww1 and did lead to newer nations in Europe, but GB and FR were concerned over self determination within their empires so resisted a general agreement in the League of Nations

GB and FR argued ex German/ Turkish colonies were not politically or economically developed enough or population educated enough to govern themselves so needed guidance

Mandates were created - the authority to rule over a place. LoN nations governed ex colonies

What did mandates mean for expansion of imperialism?

• Treaty of Versailles removed Germanys colonies, treaties of Sèvres, San Remo, and Lausanne removed ottoman territories, these lands became mandates.

• The British empire expanded 1.8 million sq miles and gained 13 million subjects, they gained control of places like Palestine and Iraq

• The dominions gained control too, e.g south west Africa was mandated by South Africa

What catagories of mandates were there?

• A category, quite developed (economically, institutionally, with infrastructure) like Jordon and Palestine, independence possible in near future

• B category, longer period of guidance needed, e.g togoland, tanganyika

• C category, independence not likely in foreseeable future e.g Samoa

What did Britain want Palestine? Why was it unstable?

Economic and strategic reasons

• mainland route to India

• Access to the Suez Canal and oil rich Iraq

• Control of the holy lands, great appeal to imperialists

By the end of WW1 Palestine was unstable, from heavy fighting, struggles with ottoman imperialism. also Britain had made promises to the Arabs and the Jews about the region which led to conflict

What was the Sykes Picot agreement?

signed 1916, GB and FR were going to divide the Ottoman Empire after the war, GB encourages the Arabs to rise against the Turks - T.E Lawrence, (Lawrence of Arabia) very important in creating the Arab revolution

What was the Balfour declaration, how did it affect Palestine?

• Arthur Balfour who was the foreign secretary attempted to win over anti imperialist Americans to British influence over the Middle East, he wrote a public letter to Walter Rothschild expressing Zionist sympathy ( this was a desire for a Jewish state)

• Balfour said he didn’t necessarily believe in a Jewish state however due to the Palestinians already there

• The Jewish population grew from 60,000 6.8% to 175,000 17.7% by 1931. The Zionist commission established Palestine to composing for Jewish riots

• Muslims and Christians set up the Muslim-Christian association

• 1918-20 violent clashes between the Arabs and Jews

How did the Ireland leave empire after ww1?

Home rule for Ireland was a major political debate in the late 19th century, Gladstone attempted to pass this in 1886 not only failed but created a lasting split in the liberal party, conservatives and liberal unionists continued to block home rule. 

This was finally passed by Asquith’s govt in 1914 but didn’t get implemented until the war ended. 

• Nationalists were angry, as there was large support of war efforts from many irish men

• in April 1916 the ‘easter rising’ occurred in Dublin, this was crushed by GB forces but it provoked further violence and guerillia warfare 

The 1921 Anglo-Irish treaty created an ‘irish free state’, this happened in the south, the northern 6 protestant counties became ‘Northern ireland’ 

In 1937, Ireland became fully independant

How did Egypt and Iraq slowly contract from empire?

In 1922, Egypt was granted formal independence but retained a ‘client’ state status which was similar to the ‘veiled’ protectorate. In 1936, The anglo-egyptian treaty came into place where GB troops left egypt except from the suez area

Also in 1922, the Anglo-Iraqi treaty established a monarchy under the hashemite family, they had new national borders with local self rule. GB controlled military and dominated politics and the economy, In 1932, the mandate ended with full independence for Iraq, except with continued British influence. RAF bases, BP had a 24% share of oil fields 

What was the myth created during WW2 about Britain’s situation?

What was the reality of this?

After Nazi conquest, and evacuations like Dunkirk, Churchills govt created propaganda that britain was fighting Germany alone, this created a ‘siege’ mentality to keep up spirits

In reality Britain had extensive imperial support, e.g Canada supported the war effort with C$3 billion in 1942-43. India provided 2.5 million soldiers, Australia 950k. The citizens of empire felt severe impacts

How did WW2 impact GB and european territories?

There was a constant threat to atlantic supply chains, so GB exports and imports reduced leading to rationing.

The nazi conquest of Europe in spring 1940 included the occupation of the channel isles, In june to november 1940-2 forces besiged malta but failed to take it, the people were given a joint george cross for heroism

How did ww2 impact North Africa?

• North Africa was a key battleground from 1940-43, GB was desperate to control Egypt and maintain access to the canal and oil

• axis occupation of the rest of North African coast occurred during the invasion of Egypt in 1942, this was stopped and driven back at the battles of El Alamein in July and October/november 1942

• Overall North Africa came back into control of allied hands in May 1943

How did WW2 impact south east Asia?

• from December 1941 to May 1942 Japan conquered most of the GB empire in SE Asia.

• The most notable defeat was the fall of Singapore, this was after a naval base had been expanded costing £60 million. By ww2 it was the fourth largest in the world. However the Japanese came through the back in the jungle which the British had ignored on the 8th February

• 80k forces from the empire surrendered on the 15th of February, largest ever surrender in British history

• Japan conquered Hong Kong in 1941, Malaya in 1942 as well as Burma

During the fighting 40k DUKE soldiers died, 150k poW, 1 million civilians died mostly in Burma, the Japanese ended the idea of ‘white invincibility’ and encouraged Asian independence movements

How did imperial subjects fight against Britain in the war?

• 30,000 Indian troops captured at Singapore formed the national Indian army (INA) under ‘bose’ and they fought the British in Burma

• Aung san formed the burma independence army initially to help the japanese get britain out

How did WW2 impact on India?

• In may 1942, Japanese invasions of burma created a direct threat on indias borders, the army held the line during ‘42 and early ‘43 whilst the allies focused west.

• In 1943, New south east asia command under mountbatten improved supplies, organisation, and training

• In 1944, Japan launched invasions in India, this failed by november due to battles of imphal and kohima

Overall 2.5 million Indians served, 87k died, with 3 million civilian casualties, mostly during the bengal famine in ‘43 this was mostly causes by climate conditons like droughts and the wartime rationing and lack of trade

How can we conclude ww2’s impact on empire?

Britain didn’t lose it’s empire during ww2 but there was change in attitudes

• international attitudes were intolerant to imperialism, there was a shift towards domestic policy after the war focusing on housing, NHS, etc

• GB was in debt of £27 billion

How did nationalism spark betweeen both wars in india?

• Govt of india act 1919, sharing of powers (dyarchy) close to provincial autonomy, this was an attempt to appease moderates, step to indian domionhood ‘swaraj’ 

• Britain feared instability so adopted a twin task strategy, overview of indian nationalist threat Rowlett act 1919, this extended war efforts with arrests and censorships

What was the Amritsar massacre?

The rowlatt act had the opposite desired effect and incited more rebellions and protests, Army pressence increased in punjab leading to the amritsar massacre

• General dyer ordered 50 men to open fire at a peaceful gathering in the gardens, there were 10,000 people and 1000 were killed.

• Many moderates abandoned loyalty to britain, Dyer was punished by being pushed into retirement and the rowlatt act was repealed in 1922

What was the government of india act 1935? How did Nationalist movements rise?

GB unilateraly expanded the indian franchise and the powers of provincial assemblies (total provincial autonomy) , however this did not appease nationalists who wanted complete independence (purna swaraj)

There were major divisions in nationalist movements

• all india muslim league created and led by Jinnah who wanted a seperate muslim state

• INC led by Gandhi wanted a united state, not all members supported the approach

Britain agreed there needed to be a muslim ‘homeland’ within federal india, this would be needed to protect muslims from hindu oppresson

How did nationalism occur in india during ww2?

• protests were suspended by nationalists in 1939, most indians supported the GB war effort, however defeats encouraged the INC to demand reforms

• In 1942, churchill sent sir stafford cripps to india to promise domion status, however the INC wanted independence. the same year gandhi launched a ‘quit india’ campaign, he was arrested and spent two years in prison

• Britain favoured the muslim league

How did India withdraw from empire and gain independence after the war?

Labour decided to give India independence as it was no longer a feasable asset as by keeping it, violence and rioting could develop and it would place too much pressure on the military

• The INA and pro-independence factions of the army hadn’t provided confidence that Britain could host authority over India 

• India also was no longer a crucial market for goods, The cost of staying was far greater than economic benefits

In 1947, Lord louis Mountbatten was appointed by the government as viceroy, he was tasked with getting India independence by June 1948, he was able to do this by the 15/08/1947 through rapid partition

• This worsened Hindu and Muslim violence as millions tried to migrate between Pakistan and India, 1 million were killed creating a legacy of bitterness

How did British control of Burma change during and after the war?

Burma had previously been a province of India untill 1937, this was to prepare the area for independence, they formed an elected assembly under PM Ba Maw

• Burma had been occupied by Japan in WW2, there had been damages to infrustructure and 1 million killed

• Originally the Burma independence army (BIA) led by Aung san supported japans invasion. However by 1944, they tried to join communist leaders and create the anti-facist organisation after Japan created a puppet state ran by PM and Aung san

By 1945, Britain had restored control of Burma, Sir reginald dorman smith prioritised reconstruction of the country rather than independence

How did Burma withdraw from empire?

• In september 1945, Aung san refused to coorperate with new Burmese army that was desinged to make him leader, Dorman smith had been replaced due to disobedience. - Aung san now ruled an executive council

• In december that same year, Attlee decided that it was no longer feasable to commit troops

• In july 1947, Aung san and other cabinet members are assinated

• On the 4th of Jan 1948, Burma became and independant republic

How did Jewish-Arab tensions rise after 1945 in Palestine?

• The nazi regime caused large-scale migration to Palestine for Jews in 1930s/40s this detirorated relations with the arabs and GB placed limits on immigration

• By 1945, after the holocaust immigration increased, violence occurred in Palestine so GB imprisoned some Jewish migrants in holding camps, this included Jews who had been in concentration camps

• However, international and US opinion favoured Jews and their settlement in Palestine, GB was torn between economic support from the US and retaining Arab allies

How did Britain try and resolve issues between jews and arabs in the area?

• Jewish terrorism was faced by GB troops and increased

• Britain suggested 3 options to prevent civil war

• A unitary state, favoured by arabs and rejected by jews

• a provincial autonomy that was still rejected

• partition of palestine, rejected by arabs but accepted by jews

In feb 1947, GB reffered the issue to the UN, in nov the UN suggests partition escalating the civil war. ON the 15th of may the British mandate ends and a new state of israel is declared

Overall, how was imperial policy constructed after ww1?

GB were left with no option but to disperse powers to nations for slightly more self control, In order to maintain empire, incentives were made to sway nationalists to stay in line

How was the 1919 GoIA constructed to appease the indians?

designed by Viceroy chelmsford and sec of state montagu to create a system of ‘dyarchy’

• The viceroy controlled key services and positions, foreign policy, tax, and defence

• The viceroy’s council was appointed, not elected but they were answerable to the legisltive council.

• the legislative council split into the assembly 104/144 elected and the council of state 34/60 elected

• provincial councils were led by indian ministers and were responsible for education, health, etc

The act was due to be reviewed 10 years later

What did Sir John Simon conclude from his commision in India in 1929?

The commision came into place as the GoIA needed to be reviewed after 10 years, Sir John Simon and other MPs spent most of 1928 in India. There was widescale protests in Lahore with one person being killed as a result. 

The INC created their own constituion under motilal nehru 

They produced the commision report in 1930 suggesting 

• Federal governement with British provinces and princley states, with provinces being given increased powers 

• Defence, security and foreign affairs remain with the viceroy

How were the roundtable conferences organised, who was involved, what conclusions were made?

There was a negative reaction to the simon commision and rapidly increasing support for nationalist groups, the GB govt under labour leader PM Macdonald invited Indian leaders to London for three conferences to try and establish dominion status for India, The first conference lasting to Jan 1931 was undermined by the absence of INC and Gandhi was in prison, he attended the second roundtable claiming to be the sole representitive of all Indian political interests

The conferences failed to reach agreements meaning Britain rejected dominion status, the disputes didn’t suggest they were comptentant to govern

What did the GoIA 1935 impose?

This was the biggest piece of legislation to pass in UK parliment at the time

• This created a federation of India where minorities were protected

• Each province became completly self governing, governers were appointed by Britain and the viceroy could suspend self govt in emergencies

• Franchise was expanded to 35 million

The act was opposed by the INC because it didn’t provide independant self control

• In september 1939 viceroy linlithgow declared war on Germany on behalf of india without consulatation, creating protests