PSYC326 Sex, Gender, Sexual Orientation Stereotypes

1. Representation is…

What is shown in the media

Sex Representation in Movies

(Miller, 2018)

Lead roles in top 100 films of 2017 - 70% male, 30% female

- varies for genre → greater difference for action/adventure programmes, prime-time viewing

statistics consistent across countries → South Korea = only country that didn't show the same pattern (however, still tended to fit into general gender stereotypes)

(Collins, 2011)

Women =

- sexualised

- subordinate position

- traditionally feminine roles - focus more on relationship than working role, homemakers

Children's Television

- female characters are under-represented

- (Kang & Hust, 2022) Two thirds of characters aimed at babies/children are male (M= 140, F= 64)

Research into children's TV has attracted a lot of attention as children are less likely to critique what they are watching, and less aware of how things can be manipulated.

There have been multiple movements to change the media children are exposed to.

Overall research found:

• males more aggressive and dynamic

• females supportive, fearful, reserved and interested in romance

• female characters increasingly independent and intelligent

• when female superheroes, they often worked for a mentor

Disney

Although when you think of Disney, you often think of princesses, there's still a divide in character representation (Shawcroft et al. 2022: M= 60%, F= 40%)

- Disney princess line created in 2001, encourages children to identify with characters and purchase associated products.

(Fought & Eisenhauer, 2015)

In the Disney princess films,

• female characters speak, on average, 20% fewer words than male characters

• approximately nine fewer female than male characters with speaking roles per film.

(England et al., 2011)

Examined gender role depictions (behavioural characteristics and climactic outcomes)

3 groups:

- Earlier movies (1937-59) e.g. Cinderella, Snow white

- Middle movies (30 yrs later) e.g. Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast

- Most recent princess movie at time - Princess and the Frog

In all categories, females showed more feminine than masculine characteristics, however, across time princesses displayed more masculine characteristics

Further research = found children viewing 'newer' Disney movies did not change their perception of princesses in general

(Clarke et al., 2024) Counterpoint

Analysed 39 Disney movies (1937-2021), not just the Princess ones.

measured how characters acted: stereotypically masculine, stereotypically feminine, and gender-neutral ways.

Results:

• male and female protagonists statistically higher in feminine traits overall

• male protagonists were significantly higher in masculine traits

(Towbin et al., 2004)

Analysed 26 animated Disney films

Themes related to being a boy/man =

- use physical means to express emotion, or show no emotion

- not in control of sexuality, unrestraint

- naturally strong and heroic

- non-domestic jobs

- overweight men have negative characteristics

Themes related to being a girl/woman =

- appearance valued more than intellect (e.g. Little Mermaid happily trades voice to get the man, uses looks)

- helpless and in need of protection

- domestic and likely to marry

- overweight women are ugly, unpleasant and unmarried

Behind the screen

(Miller, 2018)

In all behind-the-scenes positions, there are disproportionally more men.

However, there has been relatively little investigation done into why this disparity exists, and what can be done to promote equality

(Shawcroft et al., 2022)

61 Disney films (1937-2019)

Looked at the gender of those involved in production

- Male characters were more likely to be depicted as parents or children in films written by women, these characters were more well-rounded

O'Brien (2014)

Interviewed women who had left media work

- found that women leave media work because of a combination of gendered work cultures, restricted opportunities to develop, and an informal sector

Quotes show that women were taken less seriously in their roles than men, given advice/conversation on very stereotypical things e.g. flower, while men would be talked about sport

Videogames

Progression of representation of females in videogames:

• og representations unsophisticated e.g. Ms Pac-Man designed to attract female consumers

• portrayed as damsel in distress e.g. Princess Peach

• very sexualised when in a lead role e.g. Lara Croft

(Dill and Thill, 2007)

Content analysis of images shown in gaming magazines of video games characters.

Results:

- Male characters more likely to be portrayed as aggressive (M=83%, F=62%)

- Female characters more likely to be sexualised (F=60%, M=1%)

- Female characters more likely to be depicted in revealing clothes (F=39%, M=8%)

Representation in Politics

Female politicians receive less coverage and are often stereotyped:

- described according to gender roles

- focus on appearance

- asked questions on womanhood rather than policy

= less likely to be viewed as a competent candidate

(Bystrom et al., 2001)

female politicians more likely to be linked with social politics (education, family etc.) than finance or foreign policy

(Hooghe et al., 2015)

examined 6000 newcasts to look at speaking times given to MPs from 2003 until 2011.

- Female MPs less likely to be given speaking time, received less time than male colleagues

- This difference is particularly prominent for those in higher positions

(Lizotte and Wright, 2018)

Participants read a fake candidate's website (no photos).

Candidate described as:

1. attractive female

2. attractive male

3. gender with no mention of looks.

Results:

- Attractive candidates rated as less intelligent, trustworthy, competent, and qualified.

- Effect applies to both genders, but attractiveness is mentioned more often for women.

Sexual Orientation Representation

Any initial depictions the non-norm (feminine men, masculine women), treated with ridicule.

Later, as social threat e.g. villains - this led to poor consequences for the lgbtq, more likely to face scrutiny

Following development of lesbian and gay rights (Stonewall riots) there was increased acceptance in society (and therefore consumers of the media)

= inclusion of lesbian and gay characters in mainstream media, although often containing stereotypes.

(Jacobs and Meeusen, 2021)

Content analysis of TV news about LGBT people (1986-2017).

Results:

- No increase in visibility.

- Coverage still mostly negative, but fewer stories blaming LGBT people directly.

(Raley and Lucas, 2006)

Content analysis of 80 prime-time TV shows → only 7.5% had a recurring lesbian/gay character.

Representation =

Similar to heterosexual characters (shown with kids, in relationships).

Key issue =

Need to ask if these characters are part of the community or just token “inclusive” additions.

Challenge:

(Borgerson et al. 2006) → “Straightening” effect = heterosexual viewers often interpret LGBT imagery as heterosexual.

Impact of Children's Television on Children

(Coyne et al., 2014)

134 mothers of 3-6 year olds reported at 2 time points (1 year apart):

1. their child's superhero exposure in the media

2. male-stereotyped play

3. weapon play

Results:

Superhero exposure = higher levels of male-stereotyped play in boys, and higher levels of weapon play in both boys and girls

(Hamilton and Dynes, 2023)

5-8 year olds asked gender preference for 'draw and talk' and image value activities

Results:

- kids showed gender preference

- active/masculine traits by contemporary princesses valued by boys and girls

Princesses and Stereotypes

(Coyne et al., 2016)

Playing with Disney Princesses linked to more female-stereotypical behaviour a year later.

(Golden and Jacoby, 2018)

3-5 year old girls costume play - most likely to pick a princess costume (59%) when they had access

Themes in princess play:

- Beauty

- Focus on clothing/accessories

- Princess-like body movements

- Excluding boys

Pornography

(Wright and Tokunaga, 2016)

Looked at mainstream content exposure e.g. magazines and TV

- frequency of exposure to content that objectified women predicted more objectified cognitions about women = predicted attitudes supportive of violence against women.

(Fischer, 2006)

Men who listened to misogynous song lyrics = more aggressive towards female confederate than those who listened to neutral lyrics

- behaviour towards male confederates didn't change

- this was also the case for females listening to the songs and aggressive behaviour towards male confederates

Wright et al., 2016

Meta-analysis - focus on pornography and sexually aggressive behaviour in general populations

- consumption was correlated with sexual aggression in both men and women

- associations were stronger for verbal than physical sexual aggression

Positive Engagement

(Bond et al., 2009)

72% of sample reported using media as their primary means of gathering information during their coming out process - find advice/support about how to approach situation

(Craig and Mclnroy, 2014) N=19

- Online media supports LGBTQ youth identity development/coming out process by offering things such as resources, safe identity exploration, and community.

- Provides space to "come out" digitally, which can later transfer offline.

S = Online media offers anonymity and safety → reduces risks linked to offline stigma

L = Small sample (N=19) → not generalisable, sadly online identity may not reflect offline reality

(Craig et al., 2015)

LGBTQ youth (N=19) used media to cope through escapism, feel stronger via role models, fight back against stigma, and find/foster community, with media support especially valuable during challenging times (e.g., TikTok use in the pandemic)

Experimental Evidence

(Azeem and Ruffman, 2022)

Study with 88 children (42 girls, 46 boys):

- over 3 weeks, kids saw either stereotypical clips (princesses baking, princes saving) or counter-stereotypical clips (princesses fighting/saving, princes doing housework).

→ Those in the counter-stereotypical group showed less gender-stereotyped attitudes

(Greitmeyer et al., 2015)

- listening to music with pro-equality lyrics is causally associated with positive attitudes and behaviours towards women

(Bonds-Raacke et al., 2007)

- Participants asked to recall any memorable gay/lesbian media characters

- found that recalling positive gay characters (e.g., Ellen, Will from Will & Grace) led to more positive views of gay men, while recalling negative portrayals reinforced stereotypes.

Additional Factors

(Laporte, 2024)

271 preadolescents (9-12) watched a gender-focused TV episode, followed by class discussion → reduced gender essentialism (stereotypes) and increased acceptance of gender-nonconforming peers; extra classroom discussions did not strengthen the effect.

(Laporte and Eggermont, 2025)

Mother and child pairs (aged 9-13)

- either alone or with mother watched episode of TV with a positively represented transgender character

- watching such TV lowered gender essentialism but didn't impact willingness to befriend, or acceptance of gender-nonconforming peers

Shows some disconnect between level of understanding and putting it to action

- Presence of the mother didn't impact findings

Suggests children can internalise messages from the media independently, parental presence not necessary

#MeToo Movement

- Founded by Tarana Burke, and furthered by Alyssa Milano

Wanted to bring attention to sexual violence and promote empowerment through empathy. Thought it would show the magnitude of the problem

(Lindgren, 2019) first 24 hours following a tweet by Milano using the #MeToo saw an initial wave of positive trajectory, which was shortly followed and taken over by a predominance of negative ones

#MeToo Opposition and Conflict

(Dejmanee et al., 2020)

On social media, movements like #MeToo can be polarized, with supportive and opposing groups shaping public discourse

Analysed tweets using the #MeToo or #HimToo in response to a hearing of sexual assault allegations against well known lawyer Brett Kavanaugh.

#HimToo would undermine MeToo tweets

(Sun, 2020)

Responses to the MeToo movement in Chinese men and women overseas

Themes included:

1. doubting victims

2. challenging women's creditability

3. discrimination in comments

4. suggesting women should keep it to themselves

Slactivism (or clicktivism)

Online activism can raise awareness, generate funds, encourage people who don't usually take interest to get involved.

BUT, hashtag campaigns have been criticized for being 'slacktivism' rather than genuine political engagement. We see a story, get angry, share, and the contribution stops there.

Additionally, messages often circulate within like-minded groups, limiting broader reach.

(Szekeres et al., 2020)

Examined short and long-term impact of #MeToo

- Tracked sexual assault dismissal via surveys: twice before #MeToo, at its peak, and six months later.

- #MeToo reduced dismissal of sexual assault for both men and women, with effects lasting six months and influenced by social dominance orientation.