infancy studies exam 1

what is hdfs tasked with?

uncovering the similarities and differences between individuals as they develop across the lifespan as well as looking at the influence of context

prenatal stage

conception → birth

infancy stage

birth → 2 years

early childhood stage

2 years → 6 years

middle childhood stage

6 years → 11 years

adolescence stage

12 years → 18 years

physical development

how we grow; biggest period of this kind of development is prenatal

perceptual development

what we see, hear, feel; our senses and how we perceive the world

cognitive development

thinking and understanding

emotional development

feelings and control of emotions

social development

how we interact with others

language development

communication

motor development

movement

nature

(biology, genetics, heredity); emphasizes the influence of heredity or biologically based development

nurture

emphasizes the influence of forces in the environment (social forces, experiences, home and neighborhood)

what are some examples of nature playing a bigger role than nurture in development?

downs syndrome or cystic fibrosis

what are some examples of nurture playing a bigger role than nature in development?

alcoholism, music abilities

developmental stability

the degree to which people remain the same over time related to other people; stability over time compared to others, are our personality traits fixed or flexible

continuous development

gradual improvement and change over time; day-to-day observations will look more continuous

discontinuous development

stepwise change, big shifts and different stages; observing on months/years will look more discontinuous

multi-directionality in development

it can take many different paths, development is a basic process that might have variations

experiences and genes interact to change us as we age, differences between individuals become bigger as we get older

biopsychosocial approach

development is a combination of biological, psychological, and social processes; we are shaped by all three, and they overlap and intersect throughout our lives

a holistic approach: each aspect is important to consider

what are some contexts in life through which development is dependent?

risk factors and barriers, opportunities, and facilitators

the lifespan perspective

development is a lifelong process

development is multi-directional

plasticity

contextual

development is multi-dimensional

it states that development is a lifelong process where every stage of development involves particular

plasticity

the degree to which characteristics cannot or can change throughout the lifespan; it varies greatly between individuals depending on personality and opportunities

contextual

development must be studies in various contexts

ex. family, siblings, peers, schools, work, community, culture, SES, historical context

reciprocal influence: development is an ongoing interaction between a changing individual in a changing environment

multidimensionality

many intra-individual factors interact to affect development, these factors include biological, cognate, physical, social, and emotional factors

motor development → cognitive development

mind-body connection

brofenbrenner’s bio-ecological systems model

include microsystems, mesosystems, ecosystems, and macrosystems

microsystem

people and contexts that interact directly with the adolescent

mesosystem

interactions and relationships between microsystems; ex parent teacher conferences, marriages

ecosystem

a setting that affects the adolescent indirectly through the microsystem; ex parents workplace, school system, hospital

macrosystem

ex culture customs, value systems, gender norms

vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

knowledge and values are learned through interactions with caregivers

-cognitive development is a socially-mediated process

adults and older children communicate and scaffold infants and younger children

challenge new skills can only be learned with assistance when someone is ready

-”zone of proximal development”

erikson’s psychosocial theory

psychosocial theory suggests that people face particular psychological tasks called a crisis

crisis signs with particular stages of development (infancy, toddlerhood)

resolving a crisis comes from interactions with the social environment

psychosocial stages of childhood: trust vs mistrust (birth -18 months), autonomy vs shame and doubt (until about 3 years), initiative vs guilt (3-6 years), and industry vs inferiority (up to age 11)

each stage represents a different task that is resolved through experience

trust vs mistrust

birth - 18 months; early experiences with caregivers and having needs met

autonomy vs shame and doubt

18 months - 3 years; learning to do things for themselves

initiative vs guilt

3 - 6 years; taking initiative, learning and planning

industry vs inferiority

6 years - 11 years; pride and maturation from improving skills during middle childhood

behaviorism

b f skinner; behavior differences are learned as a result of conditioning, reinforcements, punishment

-reinforcement conditions behavior to occur again

-punishment should reduce the likelihood of negative behaviors from repeating

social learning

bandura; behaviors are learned through observing others modeling from adults/peers

what are the types of developmental research

observational, self-report, standardized tests, psycho-physiological, correlational, developmental

naturalistic observation

out in the field, school, home (natural environment); involves no manipulation

structured observation

occurs in a laboratory or controlled environment; researcher controls environment, evokes behavior

what are some observational research problems

observer influence

observer bias

observation is expensive and time consuming

cameras can negate some of these issues

what are some options when conducting self-report research?

paper/pencil, online, likert, short-answer

clinical interview

flexible, not “standardized” (questions can be modified)

structured interview

same questions, same order, “standardized”

what are some self-report problems?

different interpretations of questions

lack of honesty (in parent and children)

enthusiasm of interviewer/participant

memory recall errors

uncertainty about the meaning of some questions/answers

standardized tests

SAT, IQ tests

allows you to compare between people

may not work the same for people from different backgrounds

psycho-physiological research

psychology and physiology

-how does a behavior relate to changes in the body

how do biological processes contribute to development

objective measure

-these responses are automatic and difficult to fake

what are some examples of psycho-physiological research?

functional MRI (fMRI): detects increases in blood flow and oxygen in the brain over time

EEG (electroencephalogram): a measure of brain activity

heart rate: intensity can suggest a stress response

skin conductance: electrical signals as a result of actor sweat glands (due to stress or fear)

cortisol test: measures the level of stress hormones in blood, saliva, or urine

what are some problems with psycho-physiological research?

can be expensive (especially MRI)

hard to collect particularly in young children

what do the results really mean; difficult to interpret

correlational research

two variables (x and y)

range from -1 to 1

number = strength, sign = direction

correlation is not causation

third variable (z): any variable that partially explains the relationship between x and y

developmental research

what changes?

two approaches

-cross-sectional: comparing several different groups at one time point

• only shows developmental differences by age group (not change)

-longitudinal: measuring the same group of people at multiple time points

• measures developmental change over time

how to evaluate research?

purpose: what is the purpose of the story or report

exceptions: not everyone is the same (individual differences)

sample size: was this a representative sample of people

how many study’s found the same result?

correlation or experiment?

what is the source of this study?

what are the different kinds of purpose when evaluating

attention: drawing your attention to a newscast or publication

persuasion: changing your opinion, including advertisements

sensationalism: making more out of something than necessary, shock value (related to attention)

entertainment: to capture our imagination

information: “pure research” often doesn’t get reported unless some reporter or editor decides to make it newsworthy

our primary nature comes from __________ and __________

genetics and inherited traits

fundamental laws of inheritance date back to 1860s with __________ and pea plants

Gregor Mendel

what theory was developed with fruit fly experiments

chromosomal theory (classic genetics)

who was “genetics” coined by in 1905

William Bateson

________ has significant influence on development beginning in the prenatal environment

human genome

every cell in the body contains ___________ with our basic genetic code

chromosomes

how many pairs of chromosomes does a complete genetic code complete and what pair determines biological sex?

23 pairs; pair 23

genotype

make up specific genes within DNA

-some genes are dominant or recessive

phenotype

expression of the genes in physical or psychological traits

behavioral genetics

how do genes and environments interact to elicit differences in behavior

attempts to estimate how much genetic influence a trait is under, taking events of different genetic relatedness among family members

-identical twins: 100%

-fraternal twins: 50%

-half-siblings: 25%

-cousins: 12.5%

-adopted child: 0% genetic relatedness with adoptive parent

-step sibling: 0% genetic relatedness

environment can influence expression of a gene; contexts change over course of development

__________ and _________ studies allow us to estimate how traits are inherited

twin and adoption

shared environment

those aspects of environment two people have in common

non shared environment

aspects of nurturing environment that is unique to individuals

twin studies

identical twins have essentially identical genomes while fraternal twins do not

twins raised together (identical and fraternal) have more shared environment than siblings

comparing similarities between identical and fraternal twins allows us to estimate genetic influence

adoptive studies

adoptive children share environment with adoptive parents but none of their genes

adoptive children share 50% of genome with each parent, but not environment

adoptive child may be more similar to biological parent (genes) or adoptive parents (environment)

due to similarities and differences across twin and families, we identify the __________ of a trait

heritability

heritability coefficient

ranges from 0 to 1 with 0 being no genetic influence and 1 being perfect genetic influence

-most phenotypic traits are heritable, some more than others

how is heritability calculated?

by comparing differences in genotype and the phenotype of pairs of individuals

most traits are ________ meaning they’re influenced by multiple genes

polygenic

gene x environment interactions

genes serve as a starting point for development and environments influence expression (phenotype)

genes set a range, environment determines outcome

evocative correlations: inherited trait influences the environment’s response

niche picking: selecting environments based on heritable traits

over time these build a developmental trajectory based on both genes and environments

oogenesis

the process of an oocyte (female germ cell) maturing into an ovum; only an ovum is capable of fertilization

ovulation

release of ovum into fallopian tube from ovary

-ovaries rotate which side releases ovum

-sometimes multiple released (fraternal twins)

-takes place an average of 14 days before beginning of a menstrual cycle

• shorter cycles typically mean earlier ovulation

fertilization window

a mature ovum will only survive for 12-24 hours after release from ovary

spermatogenesis

how the male germ cell (sperm) is created

sperm may survive for ________ in the fallopian tube until conception

several days

combined sperm and egg form a single cell (______) which multiplies into a __________

zygote; blastocyst

first 2 weeks of pregnancy

blastocyst burrowing into the uterine wall and support structures form, early miscarriage is very common before pregnancy is known (50%)

zygote or germinal phase

moment of conception; lasts about 2 weeks of pregancy

morula

16-32 cell sphere; compact; during germinal phase

what are the 2 layers of a blastocyst

trophoblast: outer layer of stem cells, implantation, and the placenta

embryoblast: inner mass devices into the amniotic sac and embryo

blastocele

hollow cavity distinguishing the trophoblast and embryoblast

cell specification through ____________ and ____________

gene expression and chemical signaling

how many cells does a mature blastocyst have

200-300 cells

ectopic pregnancy

resulting from failure to reach uterus and is implantation into the fallopian tube

embryonic phase

from 2 weeks - 8 weeks

successful implantation and cell specialization, body structures and organs begin to form

basic organs such as brain and heart

highest sensitivity to developmental errors and miscarriage

fetal phase

from 8 weeks until birth

also can be split into trimesters (first: 0-13 weeks, second: 14-27 weeks, third: 28 weeks - full term)

age of viability: 22-24 weeks gestation

full term is 37-40 weeks

amniotic sac

a protective sac around the growing embryo and fetus

-forms about 12 days after conception (after implantation)

filled with amniotic fluid which guards against injury and infection

grows in size with baby

breaking open is a sign of labor; early rupture may lead to msicarriage

placenta and umbilical cord

filter and nourish

provides oxygen through maternal vessels connecting to umbilical vessels

-baby and mother have own blood supply

removal of waste and filtering teratogens

in twins may be shared or unique

monochorionic

shared placenta

-chorion is latin for placenta

-monochorionic twins are always identical

_____chorionic/______amniotic are the rarest (and highest risk) twins

______chorionic/______amniotic can be identical but may be fraternal

mono;mono

di;di

vernix caseosa

a protective barrier for the skin in 3rd trimester

guards against infection and water loss

nourishes skin and maintains body temperature

date scan

between 11 and 14 weeks based on size

genetic testing

identifying genetic risk for a host of potential developmental conditions

18-22 week scan

identification of placenta and fetal structures

-sometimes called “anatomy scan”

-early identification of potential growth problems