Ap lang chapter 3

Vocabulary list

Ad Hominem

Latin for “against the man,” this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker.

Ad populum (bandwagon appeal)

This fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.”

Appeal to false authority

This fallacy occurs when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority. A TV star, for instance, is not a medical expert, even though pharmaceutical advertisements often use celebrity endorsements.

Argument

A process of reasoned inquiry; a persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.

Assumption

See warrant.

Backing

In the Toulmin model, consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority. For an example, see Toulmin model.

Bandwagon appeal

See ad populum.

Begging the question

A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.

Circular reasoning

A fallacy in which the writer repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.

Claim

Also called an assertion or a proposition, states the argument’s main idea or position.

Claim of fact

Asserts that something is true or not true.

Claim of policy

Proposes a change.

Claim of value

Argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong.

Classical oration/classical argument

Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians. The five parts are:introduction (exordium), narration (narratio), confirmation (confirmatio), refutation (refutatio), and conclusion (peroratio).

Introduction (exordium)

Introduces the reader to the subject under discussion.

Narration (narratio)

Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.

Confirmation (confirmatio)

Usually the major part of the text, includes the proof needed to make the writer’s case.

Refutation (refutatio)

Addresses the counterargument. It is a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion.

Conclusion (peroratio)

Brings the essay to a satisfying close.

Closed thesis

A statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make.

Deduction

A logical process whereby one reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise).

Either/or (false dilemma)

A fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices.

Fallacy

See logical fallacy.

Faulty analogy

A fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares two things that are not comparable. For instance, to argue that because we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, we should do the same for people, asks the reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people.

First-hand evidence

Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether it’s from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.

Induction

From the Latin inducere, “to lead into”; a logical process whereby the writer reasons from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization.

Logical fallacy

Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.

Open thesis

A thesis that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in an essay.

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

This fallacy is Latin for “after which therefore because of which,” meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation.

Qualifier

In the Toulmin model, uses words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely to temper the claim, making it less absolute. For an example, see Toulmin model.

Quantitative evidence

Includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers — for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, census information.

Rebuttal

In the Toulmin model, gives voice to possible objections. For an example, see Toulmin model.

Reservation

In the Toulmin model, explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier. For an example, see Toulmin model.

Rogerian arguments

Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, are based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.

Second-hand evidence

Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

Straw man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

Syllogism

A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion.

Toulmin model

An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). This can be stated as a template: Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).

Warrant

In the Toulmin model, expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.