PSYC326 Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Stereotypes

1. Representation

Stereotyping

Media may:

- activate existing stereotypes

- create stereotypes

- challenge stereotypes

Stages of Representation in Media

(Clark, 1969) identifies 4 stages of minority representation:

1. Non-recognition = not featuring minority at all

2. Ridicule = minority character used as comedic relief, not taken seriously

3. Regulation = when minority is seen in positions of authority e.g. law enforcement, teachers

4. Respect = all individuals shown with same level of care/inclusion regardless of background

Cultural Erasure

When certain cultures and people are left out, ignored or misrepresented

- could be increased positive representation of minorities, but exclusions of any cultural identity (embody white cultural identity)

- only showing them in stereotypes

Common Black Media Stereotypes

Most frequently represented minority group

- are represented on screen the same amount as they are in society.

Frequent female stereotypes:

1. 'Mammy'

- subordinate, unattractive and faithful domestic

- serves white family, media makes them appear very happy in role (undermine civil rights movement)

2. 'Jezebel'

- erotic, sensual, relatively fair skinned

3. 'Sapphire'

- bitchy, stubborn, angry

- undermines civil rights movement, painting any black woman sticking up for themselves and their rights as an 'angry black woman'

Most common stereotype for black men is the criminal.

Common Latinx Media Stereotypes

Limited representation in media, what is there is mainly negative

Frequent stereotypes (both men and women)

1. Lover

- highly sexualised, provocatively dressed

2. Criminal

- gang members, sells drugs, aggressive

- often featured in news highlighting illegal immigration

Variation in Representation (Tukachinsky et al., 2015)

Analysed media minority representations across 345 most viewed US TV shows (1987-2008)

Likeability =

- Black 76%

- Latino 74%

- less than half Asian characters were likeable (47%)

Sexualisation =

- low for Black (7%) and Asian (11%)

- high for Latino 24%

Behind the Screen

Media reflects the interest of those in charge (owners, producers)

One study (2023) found that non-minority directors are more likely to get projects, funding, and distribution

(Erigha, 2018)

looked at budget across 11 year period - 12 out of the 13 companies, the white directors had significantly more money.

(Smith et al., 2014)

- Non-black directors = black actors in 11% of roles

- Black directors = black actors in 46% of roles

This shows how who controls media production shapes representation

Sports

(Rada and Wulfemeyer, 2005)

Examined coverage of football/basketball games, 486 comments overall.

The comments tended to consist of physical/cognitive attributes, or character

Black players:

- more likely to receive positive comments relating to physical attributes

- implies results of performance was due to physical advantages, not intelligence or studying of the game

White players:

- more likely to receive positive comments relating to on-field intelligence

(Van Sterkenburg, 2021)

Interviews with Dutch sports media professionals

- they normalised the lack of diversity in journalism and dismissed racial/ethnic stereotypes as being an issue

Videogames

(Burgess et al., 2011)

STUDY 1:

Content analysis of magazines images

- white males = 76%, overrepresented compared to US population of gamers

- minorities were extremely underrepresented - less frequent than aliens

Aggression -

- minority males (76%) more likely to be portrayed as aggressive than white males (66%)

- of the aggressive males, those white were more likely to be shown in a war setting (8%), than minorities (0%)

STUDY 2:

Content analysis of video game covers

- white characters (64%) more often in the foreground than Asian (37%), Black (50%)

- relative to US and gamer demographics, white (79%) and Asian (6%) avatars were overrepresented as primary characters

Violence -

- white vs. minorities, different types of violence depicted

- white characters was socially sanctioned e.g. in war, legitimised the violence, whereas, minority violence was illicit

News and Current Affairs

(Poindexters et al., 2003)

Content analysis of local newscasts in different cities

- Almost 3 quarters of the reporters were white (73%), 16% Black, 3% Latinx

- ethnic minorities rarely interviewed as news source

(Reid and Craig, 2021)

Newspaper coverage of protests

- BLM protests more likely to be associated with threat and violence, not socially sanctioned aggression

Crime

(Collins, 2014)

Content analysis of Canadian local newspapers

- articles describe crimes against white victims with significantly more fearful language - implies events against white victims were more distressing/important

- on the other hand, minority victims were blamed for their own victimisation

(Dixon et al., 2003)

Content analysis of TV network news

- white people overrepresented, while black people were underrepresented as victims of violent crimes and roles as police officer

Shows consistent pattern of who is being portrayed as the victims and saviours vs. the criminals

(Entman, 2000)

- Local TV news gave more coverage to white victims (stories three times longer)

- Depicted Black perpetrators more negatively (mug shots, jail clothing, restraints), reinforcing the idea that white lives are more important and Black people are more dangerous.

(Dixon and Linz, 2002)

Pre-trial TV publicity in high profile cases

- statements containing prejudicial information about suspects e.g. prior arrests more likely to be applied to Black or Latino defendants—especially in cases with White victims

- can influence juror judgment before trial.

Improvement?

(Martins et al., 2024)

25-year update to the Children Now project

- in 1998 surveyed 1,200 U.S. youth (ages 10–17) on TV racial depictions and their views on race

The study found that perceptions of representation for White and Black characters have stayed about the same over time. However, young people today feel that many other racial and ethnic groups appear on TV much more often than they did in the past. This increase mainly reflects more characters being shown, rather than improvements in how those characters are portrayed.

2. Impact

Negative Consequences

(Mastro et al., 2009)

Did priming research (showing someone something to see the impact on them)

- shown simulated TV news stories about crime

- the perpetrators race would change, after watching, racial attitudes were measured

- the ethnicity of the suspect had a significant impact on attitudes towards black people in wider society

- this shows that a single news broadcast can impact growth of stereotypes

(Behm and Ta, 2014)

Investigated white college students' frequency of video game play and attitudes towards Black and Asian individuals

- those who spend more time playing video games had less favourable views of black people (did not impact stereotypes of Asian people)

(Williams et al., 2016)

Looked at memes showing racial microaggressions (subtle and brief verbal, behavioural and environmental indignities)

- All participants rated racial memes as more offensive than non-racial ones

- minority participants who had experienced more racial microaggressions in daily life judged them as especially offensive.

Negative Consequences Immigration

(Conzo et al., 2021)

Manipulated media representation of immigrants

- found that negative news about immigrants does more than just activate stereotypes — it can biologically and behaviourally prime people for aggression and reduced cooperation, with the strongest effects among those already predisposed to prejudice.

(Esses et al., 2013)

Negative portrayals of immigrations e.g. associations with disease or 'queue jumping' have a dehumanising impact

Positive Consequences

(Sawyer and Gampa, 2018)

Attitudes examined before and during the Black Lives Matter movement (2009-2016)

- 44% support, 22% opposed

- white people became less implicitly and explicitly pro-white during BLM

(Elias and Lemish, 2009)

In-depth interviews with 70 teenage immigrants (12–18 years) showed that the internet functioned as a cultural resource for empowerment: it provided information about their new society, enabled connections with peers in their host region (less intimidating than face-to-face), and allowed them to maintain ties with friends/family back home, easing the acculturation process

Broader Impact

(Sommers et al., 2006)

Examined media coverage of Hurricane Katrina

- highlighted how many stories exaggerated or fabricated violent crime, particularly in Black communities e.g. false reports of gunfire halting helicopter rescue

- these misrepresentations affected public perceptions of victims, delaying aid and support

- also noted racial bias in reporting - Black victims portrayed as dangerous or threatening, whereas White victims received different framing

3. Intervention

Exposure

(2015)

Found that exposure to counter-stereotypical media portrayals of Black celebrities reduced stereotypical perceptions and symbolic racist beliefs

- shows that positive media representations can help decrease prejudice

Education

(Vittrup and Holden, 2011)

Examined ways to reduce racial bias in young children

- found that White children exposed to educational videos and especially parent-child discussions about race showed improved out-group attitudes

- highlights importance of parental engagement in reducing bias

Media Literacy

(Kavoori, 2007)

Evaluated a college media literacy course, which aimed to teach students to critically analyse media and challenge stereotypical portrayals of black people

Results:

- students demonstrated awareness of media bias and its affect on stereotypes

- however, when creating their own media productions, many still relied on stereotypical depictions of Black characters

- shows that critical awareness does not always translate into practice

(Scharrer, 2015)

Reviewed research on media literacy

- concluded that media literacy education can foster critical media engagement and reduce bias

- recommends use of relatable examples, counter-stereotypes, youth involvement, and explicit focus on stereotypes