Human Development in Eight Major Periods

Prenatal Period

Physical Development

Conception occurs by normal fertilisation or other means. The genetic endowment interacts with environmental Influences from the start. Basic body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins. Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span. Vulnerability to environmental influences is great.

Cognitive Developments

Abilities to learn and remember and to respond to sensory stimuli are developing.

Psychosocial Developments

Fetus responds to mother's voice and develops a preference for it.

Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3) 

Physical Development

All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees. The brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influence. Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid.

Cognitive Development

Abilities to learn and remember are present, even in early weeks. Use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of second year. Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.

Psychosocial Development

Attachments to parents and others form. Self-awareness develops. Shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs. Interest in other children increases.

Early Childhood (ages 3 to 6)

Physical Development

Growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions more adultlike. Appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common. Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve.

Cognitive Development

Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other people's perspectives grows. Cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world. Memory and language improve. Intelligence becomes more predictable. Preschool experience is common, and kindergarten experience is more so.

Psychosocial Development

Self-concept and understanding of emotions become more complex; self-esteem is global. Independence, initiative, and self-control increase. Gender identity develops. Play becomes more imaginative, more elaborate, and usually more social. Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common. Family is still the focus of social life, but other children become more important.

Middle Childhood (ages 6 to 11) 

Physical Development

Growth slows.  Strength and athletic skills Improve. Respiratory illnesses are common, but health is generally better than at any other time in the life span.

Cognitive Development

Egocentrism diminishes. Children begin to think logically but concretely. Memory and language skills increase. Cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal schooling. Some children show special educational needs and strengths.

Psychosocial Development

Self-concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem. Coregulation reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child Peers assume central importance.

Adolescence (ages 11 to about 20)

Physical Development

Physical growth and other changes are rapid and prodound.  Reproductive maturity occurs.   Major health risks arise from behavioural issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse.

Cognitive Development

Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops.  Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviours.  Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation.

Psychosocial Development

Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central. Relationships with parents are generally good. Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.

Emerging and Young Adulthood (ages 20 to 40)

Physical Development

Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly. Lifestyle choices influence health.

Cognitive Development

Thought and moral judgments become more complex. Educational and occupational choices are made, sometimes after period of exploration.

Psychosocial Development

Personality traits and styles become relatively stable, but changes in personality may be influenced by life stages and events. Intimate relationships and personal lifestyles are established but may not be lasting Most people marry, and most become parents.

Middle Adulthood (ages 40 to 65)

Physical Development

Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina, and strength may begin, but individual differences are wide. Women experience menopause.

Cognitive Development

Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving Skills are high. Creative output may decline but improve in quality. For some, career success and earning powers peak; for others, burnout or career change may occur.

Psychosocial Development

Sense of identity continues to develop; midlife transition may occur. Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress. Launching of children leaves empty nest.

Late Adulthood (ages 65 and over) 

Physical Development

Most people are healthy and active, although health and physical abilities generally decline. Slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of functioning.

Cognitive Development

Most people are mentally alert. Although intelligence and memory may deteriorate in some areas, most people find ways to compensate.

Psychosocial Development

Retirement from workforce may occur and may offer new options for use of time.  People develop more flexible strategies to cope with personal losses and impending death.  Relationships with family and close friends and provide important support.  Search for meaning in life assumes central importance.