Medieval and Early Modern History: Mongol Empire, Reformation, and Age of Exploration

In what year did Genghis Khan successfully unite the Mongol tribes?

1206

What social change did Genghis Khan implement to weaken traditional tribal loyalties?

He broke the existing clan structure.

Which specific military unit type provided the Mongol army with its signature mobility and range?

Horse archers

Besides mobility, what tactical method did the Mongols use to induce fear and surrender in their enemies?

Psychological warfare

Which Chinese dynasty did Genghis Khan first invade in 1211?

The Jin Dynasty

How did Genghis Khan typically treat cities that chose to surrender without a fight?

He rewarded them (often sparing the population).

The Mongol Empire is historically distinguished as the largest _____ empire in history.

Land

What was the primary demographic consequence of the Mongol conquest of Northern China?

Massive population loss

Which two major titles were held simultaneously by Charles V?

Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain

Which specific European territories, besides Spain and Germany, were part of Charles V's vast empire?

The Netherlands and parts of Italy

What was Charles V's primary religious self-identification during the Reformation?

Defender of Catholicism

What 1521 assembly did Charles V oversee to address the heresy of Martin Luther?

The Diet of Worms

Which distinct physical feature was a well-known trait of Charles V and his family line?

A deformed (Habsburg) chin

What chronic neurological condition did Charles V suffer from throughout his life?

Epilepsy

Which son of Charles V inherited the Spanish throne and the Netherlands?

Philip II

Which brother of Charles V inherited the Holy Roman Empire?

Ferdinand I

In what year did Charles V officially abdicate his many titles and retire to a monastery?

1556

Which Spanish conquistador led the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire?

Hernán Cortés

Who was the Aztec ruler at the time of the Spanish arrival in Tenochtitlán?

Moctezuma II

What was the name of the indigenous woman who served as a translator and advisor to Cortés?

La Malinche (Doña Marina)

Which catastrophic event significantly weakened the Aztec defense during the Spanish siege?

A smallpox epidemic

Which Spanish conquistador led the expedition that conquered the Inca Empire?

Francisco Pizarro

Who was the Incan ruler captured and eventually executed by Pizarro?

Atahualpa

What did the Spanish demand from the Inca in exchange for Atahualpa's release?

A ransom in gold

Which Dominican friar's aggressive selling of indulgences prompted Martin Luther to protest?

Johann Tetzel

What is the title of the document Martin Luther famously posted in 1517 to challenge church practices?

The 95 Theses

What is the Latin term for Luther's doctrine that salvation is achieved through faith alone?

$Sola\ fide$

What is the Latin term for the belief that the Bible is the only infallible source of religious authority?

$Sola\ scriptura$

Which group provided the physical protection that allowed Martin Luther to survive after being declared a heretic?

German princes

Who was the prominent theologian who debated Martin Luther at Leipzig and defended traditional Catholic doctrine?

Johann Eck

Who was the Pope that excommunicated Martin Luther in 1521?

Pope Leo X

Which leader of the Reformation in Switzerland disagreed with Luther over the nature of the Eucharist?

Ulrich Zwingli

Which radical Reformation group believed in adult baptism and established a short-lived communal government in Münster?

Anabaptists

Which English monarch broke away from the Catholic Church to establish the Church of England?

Henry VIII

Which controversial Pope, known for his political maneuvering and family scandals, preceded the main events of the Reformation?

Alexander VI

Which treaty in 1555 officially recognized the legal division of Christianity within the Holy Roman Empire?

The Peace of Augsburg

What principle allowed German princes to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territory?

$Cuius\ regio,\ eius\ religio$

Which French theologian wrote 'Institutes of the Christian Religion' and emphasized predestination?

John Calvin

What was the primary goal of the Council of Trent?

To reform the Catholic Church and address Protestant challenges (Counter-Reformation).

Which religious order was founded by Ignatius of Loyola to spread Catholicism and counter the Reformation?

The Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

What was the main trade route that connected China to the Mediterranean?

The Silk Road

What was the 'Middle Passage' in the context of the Atlantic trade?

The forced journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic to the Americas.

Which European country was the first to establish a direct sea route to India?

Portugal

Who was the first European explorer to reach India by sea?

Vasco da Gama

What was the primary motivation for European exploration in the 15th and 16th centuries?

'God, Gold, and Glory'

Which treaty divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain?

Treaty of Tordesillas

What was the Colombian Exchange?

The global transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World.

Which crop from the Americas became a staple food in Europe and significantly increased its population?

The potato

What was the name of the system where Spanish settlers were granted land and the labor of the native people living on it?

$Encomienda$ system

Which French king was known as the 'Sun King' and built the Palace of Versailles?

Louis XIV

What political theory argues that a monarch's power comes directly from God?

Divine Right of Kings

Which Russian leader worked to modernize and 'Westernize' Russia in the late 17th and early 18th centuries?

Peter the Great

What was the main cause of the English Civil War?

Conflict between King Charles I and Parliament over power and religion.

Who led the Parliamentary forces (New Model Army) during the English Civil War?

Oliver Cromwell

What was the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688?

The bloodless overthrow of King James II and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne.

Which document limited the power of the English monarchy and established the rights of Parliament in 1689?

The English Bill of Rights

What was the Enlightenment?

An intellectual and philosophical movement that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights.

Which philosopher wrote 'The Social Contract' and believed in the 'general will'?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Who wrote 'The Wealth of Nations' and is considered the father of modern economics?

Adam Smith

What was the main cause of the French Revolution?

Social inequality, economic crisis, and Enlightenment ideas.

Which French document, inspired by Enlightenment ideas, declared that 'men are born and remain free and equal in rights'?

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Who was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror?

Maximilien Robespierre

How did Napoleon Bonaparte rise to power?

Through a military $coup\ d'état$ in 1799.

What was the Napoleonic Code?

A uniform system of laws established for France by Napoleon.

Where was Napoleon's final defeat?

The Battle of Waterloo

What was the main goal of the Congress of Vienna?

To restore order and stability to Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.