H Bio Final - Semester 1

Steps of Scientific Method

PIMP ERIC:

1)define the Problem (question)

2)gather additions Information

3)Make a hypothesis

4)Plan the experiment (list of materials needed, procedure/method)

5)do the Experiment

6)Record the data(data table)

7)Interpret graphs

8)Conclusion (is hypothesis correct? cite data, sources of error, ways to improve)

what is a hypothesis?

educated guess

has to be if... then... statement

has to be testable

specific

independent variable

variable that the scientist controls, stays the same throughout experiment, on x-axis

dependent variable

data that the scientist is collecting (because of the independent variable), goes on the y-axis

data tables

use a ruler, title, column heading, units of measure

graphs

use at least 75% of graph, IND variable on the x-axis, DEP variable on the y-axis, units (in parenthesis), title = y vs. x, needs a key if more than one line is on the graph

characteristics of life

1)made up of cells (aka basic units)
2)based on a universal genetic code, DNA
3)obtain and use energy
4)grow and develop
5)reproduce
6)respond to their environment
7)maintain stable internal environment
8)evolve/change over time

taxonomy

science of classifying organisms

steps of taxonomy

(biggest to smallest)
Domain
Kingdom
Phyllum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

how to remeber:
Does King Phillip Come Over For Great Soup?

prokaryotic cells

unicellular
flagella
simple, small
ex. bacteria
absent nucleus
one circular DNA strand
cell division by binary fission

eukaryotic

large, complex
have a membrane bound nucleus
multicellular and unicellular
ex. animals, humans, plants, fungi
sexual reproduction
cell division by mitosis (cytokinesis)

both prokaryotic and eukaryotic

have DNA
contain a plasma (cell) membrane
contain cytoplasm
contain ribosomes
carry on all necessary functions of life
have vesicles
flagella in some

cell parts and organelles

cell membrane (plasma membrane)
cytoskeleton
cytoplasm
organelles
nucleus
chromatin
nuclear envelope
nucleolus
centriole
rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)
smooth ER
ribosome
golgi apparatus
mitochondria
lysosome
vacuole
chloroplast
cell wall

cell membrane

- semi permeable (allows some things in and keeps others out)
- "gate keeper" of the cell
- in plant, animal, and eukaryotic cells

cytoskeleton

- provides support.shape/strength for cell
- made of microfilaments and microtubules
- microtubules = hollow tubes made of protein
- microfilaments = thin filaments of protein

cytoplasm

- jellylike substance inside the cell
- where many cellular reactions take place
- surrounds organelles and keeps them in place

organelles

- "mini organs"
- membrane bound parts of cell

nucleus

- control center of the cell
- contains DNA

chromatin

- DNA "tangles" in the nucleus
- coils into chromosomes during cell division
- long and thin DNA strands

nuclear envelope

- membrane surrounding the nucleus
- contains holes (nuclear pores) that allows RNA to leave nucleus

nucleolus

- makes ribosomes
- looks like a ball of yarn
- found inside the nucleus

centriole

- microtubules which may aid in cell division
- ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS
- located near nucleus
- looks like a churro

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulim

- transports proteins and other substances throughout the cell
- has ribosomes on surface

smooth ER

- makes lipids and carbohydrates
- no ribosomes

ribosome

- site of protein synthesis
- can be free floating or attached to the rough ER

golgi apparatus

- collects, modifies, packages, and ships substances made by the cell
- substances are packages in vesicles
- "UPS"

mitochondria

- powerhouse of the cell
- site of cellular respiration (generates ATP for cell)
- has folded inner membrane (cristae, increases surface area for cellular respiration)
- have their own DNA

lysosome

- janitor
- contains digestive enzymes that destroy worn out cell parts and materials
- also digest carbs, proteins, lipids
- may play a roll in human development
- RARELY found in plant cells
- AKA suicide sac
- comes from golgi apparatus (golgi makes lysosome)

vacuole

- fluid filled sac that stores food, water, wastes, enzymes
- very LARGE in PLANTS (can take of 70-80% of cell)

chloroplast

- site of photosynthesis
- ONLY IN PLANT CELLS
- internal structure contains stacks of pancakes AKA grana which increase surface area for photosynthesis

cell wall

- rigid structure surrounding cell membrane that provides support
- made of cellulose
- PLANT CELLS (and some bacteria)
- gives plant cells square shape

animal cells

- centrioles
- chromatim
- small vacuole (vacuoles are rare)
- many lysosomes

plant cells

- cholorplast
- cell wall
- large vacuole

cell membrane structure

- all cells have to maintain homeostasis
- cell/plasma membrane - phospholipid bilayer

Phospholipid:
- phosphate head (hyrophollic, polar)
- lipid tails (hydrophobic, nonpolar)

cholesterol

embeded in the phospholipid bilayer for stability and support

proteins

- embedded (integral)
- go all the way through the membrane
- important in moving big molecules across the cell membrane

channel

tunnel

surface (Peripheral)

- important in cell communication
- cell identification

aquaporins

- pores where water moves in and out

glycoprotein

cell transport

1) passive transport
2) active transport

passive transport

does not need energy

diffusion (molecule more from high [ ] to low [ ])

active transport

needs energy
1)diffusion
2)facilitated diffusion
- high [ ] to low [ ]
3)osmosis
- movement of water from high [ ] to low [ ]

factors that affect rate of diffusion

- temperature
- pressure
- size
- steepness

semi-permeable

lets some things in and keeps others out

osmotic solutions (osmosis)

a)isotonic
- same [ ] of water in and out of cell
- no net movement of water
- cell stays same size
b)hypotonic
- more water outside cell so the water moves in cell
- cell gets bigger and can burst
c)hypertonic
- more water in cell so water moves out
- cell shrinks

active transport types

1)exocytosis - exiting
2)endocytosis - entering
1)phagocytosis - cell eating
2) pinocytosis - cell drinking

virus

- genetic material encased in a capsid (protein coat)
- very small
- can be spherical, helical, or icosohedral
- obligate parasites

bacteriophage

capsid

protein coat

envelope

extra layer of protection

spikes

proteins and carbohydrates on surface of capsid

DNA viruses

- more stable, less likely to mutate
- some have RNA proteins
- sometimes DNA incorporates into host cell DNA
- vaccines
- bigger
- proof reading abilities (Check for mutations)

RNA viruses

- not stable
- mutate more often
- very small
- some are retroviruses (can make DNA from RNA, reverse transcript)
- if vaccines, boosters needed

virus replication

1)lytic
2)lysogenic

lytic cycle

- kills the host cell
- AERAR
- virulent (violent/aggresive)

AERAR

1)attachment
2)entry
3)replication
4)assembly
5)release

lysogenic cycle

- temperate (milder)
- replication of viral DNA without killing the host cell
- hides out
-AEIM
- stressor causes the virus to turn lytic

AEIM

1)attachment
2)entry
3)integration
4)cell multiplication

prophage

provirus

host range

each type of virus can infect a limited range of host cells

broad = wide range of species it can infect
specific - narrow range

virions

new/baby viruses

viriods

smallest know viral particles

prions

abnormal protein clumps

vaccine

preparation of a pathogen

inactivated or attenuated

inactivated = can NOT replicate in host
attenuated = genetically altered so it CANNOT cause disease

pathogen

stimulates an immune response and provides protection

bacteria

- unicellular
- simple
- no nucleus
- prokaryotic
- singular circle strand of DNA
- has ribosomes
- strong rigid cell wall
- SOME have extra layer of protection (capsule)
- SOME have flagella (tail for movement)
- SOME have pili (hairs on surface of cell that help bacteria stick together)
- reproduce by binary fission

conjugation

- bacteria kissing
- one bacteria passes drug resistance to another bacteria

endospore

bacteria hybernates until conditions are favorable - can last over 100 years

morphology

shape:
- bacillus = rod
- coccus = round
- spirillum - spiral

arrangement:
- diplo = 2
- strepto - long chain
- staphlo - clusters

antibiotics

prevent bacteria from replicating

photosynthesis

in plants, in chloroplast, makes glucose

leaf anatomy

primary site for photosynthesis

balanced photosynthesis equation

sun + 6CO2 + 6H20 ---(chlorophyll arrow)----> C6H12O6 + 6Oc

chlorophyll

pigment
not used up or changed
traps light energy

parts of chloroplast

thylakoid membrane, stroma, grana

primary pigments

chlorophyll a: (mvp)
absorbs mostly red light

chlorophyll b:
absorbs mostly blue light

accessory pigment

xanthophyll - yellow
carotene - orange
beta carotene (anthocyanin) - red

light reaction

in thylakoid membrane

calvin cycle

in stroma

1)carbon fixation
2)reduction
3)regeneration

NADPH formula

2e- + H+ + NADP+ ---> NADPH

water splitting formula

2H2O ----> 4H+ + 4e- + O2

ATP

adenosine triphosphate

ADP

adenosine diphosphate

chemiosmosis

protein push
movement of H+ from inside thylakoid membrane to stroma

ATP synthase

integral protein channel for H+

OIL RIG

oxidation is losing e-
reduction is gaining e-

cellular respiration

anaerobic and aerobic

in all living things

anaerobic

NO O2
- net yield of 2 ATP
- faster

1)glycolysis - 2 atp, glucose breaks in half
2a)lactic acid fermentation
2b)alcohol fermentation

aerobic

WITH O2
- many steps
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 -----> 6CO2 + 6H20 + 38 ATP

1)glycolysis - 2 atp, glucose breaks in half
2)2 pyruvic acid + coenzyme a = Acetyl CoA
3)krebs cycle - 2 atp, gives off e-, CO2 released, FADH2 + NADH are e- carriers
4)electron transport chain - 34 atp, gives off water, atp synthase

digestion

process of breaking down food into molecules the body can use

mechanical digestion

physically changing the size of the food

chemical digestion

a change in the chemical nature of the nutrients

gastrointestinal tract

Hollow organs that food passes through

teeth

mechanical digestion

molars

grinding in back of mouth

incisor

biting

canine

piercing

bicuspid

grinding

tongue

push bolus back in mouth