AP psych modules 20-25

sensation

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain integration of sensory information

top down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattention blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensations, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses our brain can interpret

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a persons experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

subliminal

below ones absolute threshold for conscious awareness

difference threshold

the minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

priming

the activation of certain associations, memory or response

webers law

the principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

sensory adaption

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

a mental predisposition

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness; is determined by amplitude

cornea

the eyes clear protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris. Bends light to help provide focus

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accomodation

the process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black and white and are sensitive to movement

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind spot because no receptor cells are located there

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eyes cones cluster

young- Helmholtz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retinal contains three different types of color receptors, when stimulated in combination they can produce the perception of ant color

opponent- process theory

the theory of opposing retinal processes enable color vision

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brains visual cortex that respond to the specific features of the stimulus, auch as shape, angle, or movement

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision

gestalt

an organized whole. Our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure-ground

the organization of the visual fiends into objects that stand out from their surroundings

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

a laboratory divide for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. by comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity between the two images the closer the object

monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in a quick succession

perceptual consistency

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illuminations alters the wavelength reflected by the object

perceptual adaption

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaces or even inverted visual field

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

pitch

a tones experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing 3 tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochleas oval window

cochlea

a coiled bony fluid filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

sensorineural hearing

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochleas receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; most common form of hearing loss

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical systems that conducts sound waves. to the cochlea

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through the electrodes threaded into the cochlea

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochleas membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of the nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its bitch

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate“ that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain

olfaction

the sense of smell

kinesthesia

our movement sense- our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

our sense of body movements and position that enables our sense of balance

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements