psych 1101 exam 3

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

preparedness

predisposition to learn particular associations

unconditioned response (UR)

unlearned, naturally ocurrring response (such as salivation) to unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that unconditionally (natually and automatically) triggers unconditioned response (UR)

conditioned response (CR)

learned response to previously neutral (but now) conditiones stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

originally neutral stimulus that, after association with unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger conditioned response (CR)

B. F. Skinner

psychologist influencing modern behaviorism expanded Thorndike’s law of effect, which states that rewarded behavior tends to recur

shaping behavior

gradually guiding behavior toward the desired behavior; when everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped

successive approximations

responses that are increasingly close to the final desired behavior are rewarded

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli

reinforcement

increases behavior

punishment

decreases the behavior

positive reinforcement

any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens that response; a pleasant stimuluus (increases behavior)

negative reinforcement

any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response; an unpleasant stimulus (increases behaviors)

immediate reinforcer

occurs immediately after a behavior

delayed reinforcer

involves a time delay between the desired response and delivery of the reward

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcement on every occurrence; rapid learning

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

slower learning; resistant to extinction

fixed ratio (partial reinforcement schedule)

every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior; i.e. buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced

fixed interval (partial reinforcement schedule)

every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time; i.e. Tuesday discount prices

variable ratio (partial reinforcement schedule)

after an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors; i.e. playing slot machines or fly fishing

variable interval (partial reinforcement schedule)

unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time; i.e. checking our phone for a message

positive punishment

presents a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited; administering an aversive stimulus

negative punishment

removes a desired stimulus after a particular undesired behavior is exhibited; withdrawing a rewarding stimulus

punishment

this technique only supporesses behavior, not forgotten, teaches discrimination among situations, can teach fear, may increase agression by modeling violence

skinner’s model

at school: students must be told immediately whether what they do is right or wrong; in sports: shaping starting with easier iterations; in computer programs: AI is reinforced by doing things right; at work: immediate reinforcement rather than monthly pay?; in parenting: catch kids doing things that are right

classical conditioning

learning associations between events we do not control, eliciting an involuntary and automatic response

operant conditioning

learning associations between our behavior and its consequencesl eliciting a voluntary response, operates on environment (consciously)

memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

retrieval (recall)

recalling information

systems of learning

encoding, storage, retrieval of information, recognizing previously encountered information, relearning familiar items more easily

information-processing model

compares human memory to computer operations: encoding, storage, and retrieval

connectrionism information-processing model

focuses on multitrack, parallel processing—the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

Atkinson-Shriffin Model (1968)

3 processing stages: semsory memory, short term memory, long term memory

sensory memory

memory lasting seconds or fractions of a second: records immediate and momentary sensory information » iconic memory and echoic memory

short term memory

memory encoded through rehearsal: holds 5-7 items for about 15-20 seconds (briefly) before information is stored or forgotten—has capacity that varies by age and distractions at the time of memory tasks

long term memory

relatively permanent and limitless archinve of memory stored for years or even decades— includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

control processes

active processes that can be controlled by the person: rehearsal, strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable, strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli

george miller (1956)

psychologist proposed the magical number 7 ± 2 items that can be stored in short term memory

baddeley and colleagues (1975)

psychologists confirmed that without distraction, we can recall about 7 digits, 6 letters, or 6 words

herman ebbinghaus

proposed the forgetting curve: practiced list of syllables and plotted memory of percent of information retained (savings) versus time elapsed since learning for the first time » decreasing exponential curve

memory retention

speed of relearning is one measure of this (Baddeley 1982) — more repetitions on day 1 lead to less time to relearn it on day 2 (Herman Ebbinghaus)

spaced practice

practicing/relearning information about when information is about to disappear to improve memory retention long-term

alan baddeley

psychologist stresses the active processing occurring in the second memory stage

working memory

memory concerned with the storage, processing, and manipulation of information; is active during complex cognition » set up to process different types of information simultaneously

sensation

provides the raw data about the environments; sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the experience resulting from stimulation of the senses; brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful — can change based on adding information

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by the higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

bottom-up processing

taking sensory information and then assembling and integrating it

top-down processing

using models, ideas, and expectations to interpret sensory information

motivation and emotions

perception can be influenced by these factor, i.e. walking destinations look farther away when fatigued

perceptual set

mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another; a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that affects, top-down, what we hear, taste, feel, and see

schemas

organize and interpret unfamiliar information through experience— determine perceptual set

preexisting schemas

these perceptual sets influence top-down processing of ambiguous sensation interpretation, including gender stereotypes

context effects

when given stimulus may trigger different perceptions because of the immediate context or cultural context

senses

these receive sensory stimulation, often using specialize receptor cells; transform sensory stimulation into neural impulses and deliver neural information to our brain

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another, such as stimulus energies (sights, sounds, and smells) into neural impulses our brain can interpret

signal detection theory

measuring how individuals make decisions under uncertainty, distinguishing signal from background noise

absolute threshold

in signal detection theory, the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time— define the point where half the time a stimulus is detected and half the time it is not

subliminal

below threshold of signal detection theory

priming

activation association (often unconscious) that may impact signal detection theory

difference threshold

the minimum difference that a person can detect between any two stimuli half the time

weber’s law

states that for an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount)

subliminal stimuli

stimuli are too weak to detect 50 percent of the time; below the absolute threshold

subliminal sensation

exists, but such sensations are too fleeting to enable exploitation with subliminal messages

subliminal persuasion

may produce a fleeting and subtle but not powerful or enduring effect on behavior

sensory adaptation

this tool can help with diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation, focuses on reducing background chatter, and influences how the world is perceived in a personally useful way

novelty

our sensory receptors are very sensitive to this, and sensory adaptation can influence how we perceive emotions

light energy

our eyes receive and transduce this into neural messages that our brain creates for us to consciously see

hue, intensity

wavelength and amplitude of light correlate to how we perceive these with our eyes and brains

receptive cells

light-energy particles trigger chemical reactions in these cells, sending signals

cones

photoreceptor cells that are densely packed in the fovea and have high spatial resolution; red, green, and blue

rods

photoreceptor cells that have high sensitivity and low resolution

bipolar cells

cells that produce neural signals from light energy from photoreceptor cells and activate neighboring ganglion cells

ganglion cells

cells activated with visual information from neighboring bipolar cells and send signals to the thalamus via optic nerve pathways

photopic vision

high-acuity, color vision in well-lit conditions

mesopic vision

fuzziness happens in between photopic and scotopic vision

scotopic vision

low acuity and no color discrimination but works in low-light conditions

young-hemholtz trichromatic (three color) theory

theory that eye must have 3 corresponding color receptor types, each sensitive to red, green, and blue wavelengths

opponent-process theory (Hering’s hypothesis)

cones’ responses are processes by opposing retinal cells, so red perceives green, blue-yellow, white-black » leads to afterimages

blackemore & cooper

performed experiment that exposed kittens to vertical-only stimuli and overtime kittens were only able to perceive verticals in normal stimuli

specialized nerve cells

in the brain, these respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

ganglion cells

cells receive information from these cells in the retina and pass the information to other cortical areas where teams of cells (supercell clusters) respond to more complex patterns

face recognition

in social animals, such as humans, a large right temporal lobe area is dedicated to this crucial task

perceptual organization

gestalt psychologists proposed principles to organize sensations, including principle of similarity, principle of closure, continuity, and simplicity rules

perceptual organization figure-ground

organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

gestalt principles

tend to organize even novel stimuli into units

palmer (1977)

psychologist found participants could recognize the parts most rapidly when they were the segments predicted by the gestalt principles

oblique effect

we perceive verticals and horizontals more easily than other orientations

light-from-above assumption

we assume light comes from above because this is common in our environment— additionally perceive shadows as specific information about depth and distance

depth perception

the ability to see objects in 3 dimensions, although images that strike the retina are 2D— allows us to judge distance and is present (in part) at birth

binocular cues

two eyes help with perception of depth

convergence

inward movement of the eyes

retinal disparity

binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain calculates distance — used by 3D filmmakers

monocular cues

cues available to either eye alone, including relative height, size, interposition (overlap), linear perspective, light and shadow, relative motion, and perceptual constancy

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects

brightness constancy

perceiving objects to have a consistent level of lightness or shade, regardless of changes in illumination or shadows that may alter wavelengths reflected by the objects

shape constancy

perceiving the form of familiar objects as constant even when our retinas receive changing images of them

size constancy

perceiving objects as having constant size even when distance from them varies