exam 3 federal government

bipartisanship

a process of cooperation through compromise

critical election

an election that represents a sudden, clear, and long-term shift in voter allegiances

divided government

a condition in which one or more houses of the legislature is controlled by the party in opposition to the executive

first-past-the-post

a system in which the winner of an election is the candidate who wins the greatest number of votes cast, also known as plurality voting

gerrymandering

the manipulation of legislative districts in an attempt to favor a particular candidate

majoritarian voting

a type of election in which the winning candidate must receive at least 50 percent of the votes, even if a run-off election is required

majority party

the legislative party with over half the seats in a legislative body, and thus significant power to control the agenda

minority party

the legislative party with less than half the seats in a legislative body

moderate

an individual who falls in the middle of the ideological spectrum

party identifiers

individuals who represent themselves in public as being part of a party

party organization

the formal structure of the political party and the active members responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates

party platform

the collection of a party's positions on issues it considers politically important

party polarization

the shift of party positions from moderate towards ideological extremes

party realignment

a shifting of party alliances within the electorate

party-in-government

party identifiers who have been elected to office and are responsible for fulfilling the party's promises

party-in-the-electorate

members of the voting public who consider themselves part of a political party or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other

personal politics

a political style that focuses on building direct relationships with voters rather than on promoting specific issues

plurality voting

the election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share

political machine

an organization that secures votes for a party's candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government

political parties

organizations made up of groups of people with similar interests that try to directly influence public policy through their members who seek and hold public office

precinct

the lowest level of party organization, usually organized around neighborhoods

proportional representation

a party-based election rule in which the number of seats a party receives is a function of the share of votes it receives in an election

reapportionment

the reallocation of House seats between the states to account for population changes

redistricting

the redrawing of electoral maps

safe seat

a district drawn so members of a party can be assured of winning by a comfortable margin

sorting

the process in which voters change party allegiances in response to shifts in party position

third parties

political parties formed as an alternative to the Republican and Democratic parties, also known as minor parties

two-party system

a system in which two major parties win all or almost all elections

association

groups of companies or institutions that organize around a common set of concerns, often within a given industry or trade

astroturf movement

a political movement that resembles a grassroots movement but is often supported or facilitated by wealthy interests and/or elites

Citizens United

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was a 2010 Supreme Court case that granted corporations and unions the right to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections

collective good

a good such as public safety or clean air, often produced by government, that is generally available to the population as a whole

contract lobbyist

a lobbyist who works for a contract lobbying firm that represents clients before government

disturbance theory

the theory that an external event can lead to interest group mobilization

efficacy

the belief that you make a difference and that government cares about you and your views

elite critique

the proposition that wealthy and elite interests are advantaged over those without resources

fragmentation

the result when a large interest group develops diverging needs

free rider problem

the situation that occurs when some individuals receive benefits (get a free ride) without helping to bear the cost

grassroots movement

a political movement that often begins from the bottom up, inspired by average citizens concerned about a given issue

in-house lobbyist

an employee or executive within an organization who works as a lobbyist on behalf of the organization

inside lobbying

the act of contacting and taking the organization's message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence policy

iron triangle

three-way relationship among congressional committees, interests groups, and the bureaucracy

issue network

a group of interest groups and people who work together to support a particular issue or policy

legislative liaison

a person employed by a governmental entity such as a local government, executive department, or university to represent the organization before the legislature

lobbyist

a person who represents an organization before government in an attempt to influence policy

material incentives

substantive monetary or physical benefits given to group members to help overcome collective action problems

membership organization

an interest group that usually consists of dues-paying members who organize around a particular cause or issue

neopluralist

a person who suggests that all groups' access and influence depend on the political environment

outside lobbying

the act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization's message to the public, often through the use of the media and/or by issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers

particularized benefit

a benefit that generally accrues to a narrow segment of society

pluralist

a person who believes many groups healthily compete for access to decision-makers

public interest group

an interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all

purposive incentives

benefits to overcome collective action problems that appeal to people's support of the issue or cause

revolving door laws

laws that require a cooling-off period before government officials can register to lobby after leaving office

soft money

money that interests can spend on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law

solidary incentives

benefits based on the concept that people like to associate with those who are similar to them

voting cues

sources including fellow lawmakers, constituents, and interest groups—that lawmakers often use to help them decide how to vote, especially on unfamiliar issues

apportionment

the process by which seats in the House of Representatives are distributed among the fifty states

bicameralism

the political process that results from dividing a legislature into two separate assemblies

bill

proposed legislation under consideration by a legislature

cloture

a parliamentary process to end a debate in the Senate, as a measure against the filibuster; invoked when three-fifths of senators vote for the motion

collective representation

the relationship between Congress and the United States as a whole, and whether the institution itself represents the American people

conference committee

a special type of joint committee that reconciles different bills passed in the House and Senate so a single bill results

constituency

the body of voters, or constituents, represented by a particular politician

delegate model of representation

a model of representation in which representatives feel compelled to act on the specific stated wishes of their constituents

descriptive representation

the extent to which a body of representatives represents the descriptive characteristics of their constituencies, such as class, race, ethnicity, and gender

enumerated powers

the powers given explicitly to the federal government by the Constitution to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, raise and support armies, declare war, coin money, and conduct foreign affairs

filibuster

a parliamentary maneuver used in the Senate to extend debate on a piece of legislation as long as possible, typically with the intended purpose of obstructing or killing it

implied powers

the powers not specifically detailed in the U.S. Constitution but inferred as necessary to achieve the objectives of the national government

inherent powers

the powers neither enumerated nor implied but assumed to exist as a direct result of the country's existence

joint committee

a legislative committee consisting of members from both chambers that investigates certain topics but lacks bill referral authority

majority leader

the leader of the majority party in either the House or Senate; in the House, the majority leader serves under the Speaker of the House, in the Senate, the majority leader is the functional leader and chief spokesperson for the majority party

markup

the amending and voting process in a congressional committee

minority leader

the party member who directs the activities of the minority party on the floor of either the House or the Senate

oversight

the right to review and monitor other bodies such as the executive branch

politico model of representation

a model of representation in which members of Congress act as either trustee or delegate, based on rational political calculations about who is best served, the constituency or the nation

pork-barrel politics

federal spending intended to benefit a particular district or set of constituents

president pro tempore

the senator who acts in the absence of the actual president of the Senate, who is also the vice president of the United States; the president pro tempore is usually the most senior senator of the majority party

representation

an elected leader's looking out for constituents while carrying out the duties of the office

select committee

a small legislative committee created to fulfill a specific purpose and then disbanded; also called an ad hoc, or special, committee

Speaker of the House

the presiding officer of the House of Representatives and the leader of the majority party; the Speaker is second in the presidential line of succession, after the vice president

standing committee

a permanent legislative committee that meets regularly

surge-and-decline theory

a theory proposing that the surge of stimulation occurring during presidential elections subsides during midterm elections, accounting for the differences we observe in turnouts and results

trustee model of representation

a model of representation in which representatives feel at liberty to act in the way they believe is best for their constituents

whip

in the House and in the Senate, a high leadership position whose primary duty is to enforce voting discipline in the chambers and conferences

bully pulpit

Theodore Roosevelt's notion of the presidency as a platform from which the president could push an agenda

cabinet

a group of advisors to the president, consisting of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch who head the fifteen executive departments

executive agreement

an international agreement between the president and another country made by the executive branch and without formal consent by the Senate

Executive Office of the President

the administrative organization that reports directly to the president and made up of important offices, units, and staff of the current president and headed by the White House chief of staff

executive order

a rule or order issued by the president without the cooperation of Congress and having the force of law

executive privilege

the president's right to withhold information from Congress, the judiciary, or the public

going public

a term for when the president delivers a major television address in the hope that public pressure will result in legislators supporting the president on a major piece of legislation

impeachment

the act of charging a government official with serious wrongdoing, which in some cases may lead to the removal of that official from office

king caucus

an informal meeting held in the nineteenth century, sometimes called a congressional caucus, made up of legislators in the Congress who met to decide on presidential nominees for their respective parties

line-item veto

a power created through law in 1996 and overturned by the Supreme Court in 1998 that allowed the president to veto specific aspects of bills passed by Congress while signing into law what remained

Office of Management and Budget

an office within the Executive Office of the President charged with producing the president's budget, overseeing its implementation, and overseeing the executive bureaucracy

rally around the flag effect

a spike in presidential popularity during international crises

signing statement

a statement a president issues with the intent to influence the way a specific bill the president signs should be enforced