AP psych test review

psychology

The scientific study of behavior (anything an organism does) and mental processes (internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior)

empiricism

The view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and science flourishes through observation and experimentation.

structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.

functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

humanistic psychology

Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth.

nature-nurture (issue)

The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

levels of analysis

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

applied research

Scientific study that aims to save practical problems.

counseling psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well being.

clinical psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. Summary.

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

operational definition

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.

false consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

population

All the cases in a group, from which sample may be drawn for a study. (Except for national studies, this doesn't refer to a country's whole population.)

random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggest the strength of the correlation.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables0 to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes (the dependent variables). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment of a placebo. Used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

experimental condition

The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control condition

The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations to the independent variable.

mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

biological psychology

A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

dendrite

The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

axon

The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. This is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the "synaptic gap" or "cleft".

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction.

endorphins

"Morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

nervous system

The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

nerves

Neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

sensory neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.

motor neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also known as the skeletal nervous system.

autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

neural networks

Interconnected neural cells. With experience, they can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of these show analogous learning.

endocrine system

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

adrenal glands

A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. These secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline) ,which help to arouse the body in times of stress.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

lesion

Tissue destruction, naturally or experimentally.

electroencephalogram (EEG)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

position emission tomography (PET) scan

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain.

functional MRI (fMRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scan show brain anatomy; these scans show brain function.

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; this is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

reticular formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

cerebellum

The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

limbic system

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

glial cells (glia)

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

frontal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the op of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.

temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

An area at eh rear of the frontal loves that controls voluntary movements.

sensory cortex

The area at eh front of the parietal loves that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remember, thinking, and speaking.

aphasia

Impairment of language, usually cased by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impaired speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

Controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

plasticity

The brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of e experience on brain development.

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

A condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.