AP Psychology: Unit 2-B

Concept

the mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

concepts with mental images or typical examples

Schema

cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

Assimilation

process of incorporating new in experiences into our current understanding

Accommodation

adjusting and modifying schema

Algorithm

methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem

Heuristics

rule of thumb / mental shortcuts

simple thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently 

Heuristics vs Algorithms

Algorithms will slowly, but eventually result in an answer, where Heuristics are faster, but more error prone

Insight

a sudden novel realization to a solution or problem

0.3s or less

right temporal cortex

a - ha!

Mental Set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was successful in the past 

Framing 

decisions and judgements may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed

Functional Fixedness

a tendency to think only of familiar functions of an object; inability to see a tool from a fresh perspective 

the problem with prototyping 

Availability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory

Representativeness Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things based on how they match a prototype

Gambler’s Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently 

Sunk Cost Fallacy 

the phenomenon in which someone is reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action because they have invested heavily in it, even when abandonment would be more beneficial

Executive Functioning

cognitive processes (frontal lobe) that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking

Convergent Thinking

using info to figure out one good, concrete solution to a problem, more logic oriented

Divergent Thinking

using information to generate multiple ideas or solutions to a problem - more creative

Encoding 

bringing information in 

Storage

storage, info saved

Retrieval

information brought back

Working Memory Model

emphasizes active processing and manipulation

Central Executive

directs focus/attention

Phonological Loop

stores sound information and continuously rehearses it 

Visuospatial Sketchpad

constructs/manipulates visual images to create visual mental maps

Multi-Store Model

includes a sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory 

Iconic

0.5 or less, Visual

Echoic

3 - 4 or less, Audio

Haptic

Less than 1, Touch

Short Term Memory

7 plus or minus 2, 5 - 9 objects at a time

20s duration

with adequate processing, information moves to long term memory

without meaningful rehearsal, information is forgotten

No Rehearsal

information in short term memory rapidly decays

Maintenance Rehearsal

repeatedly processing at the same level, short lasting

Elaborative Rehearsal

processing information at a deeper level, more likely to to be stored in long - term memory

Long Term Memory

infinite storage space

can be retrieved to working memory and recalled

Explicit LTM

facts / events, processed in hippocampus

Semantic Memory

facts

Episodic Memory

events

Implicit Memory

motor skills, processed in cerebellum

Procedural Memory

motor skills

Prospective Memory

remembering to remember something, remembering to do something in the future

can be enhanced with internal/external clues

combination of working and long term memory

Long Term Potentiation

persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons

as memories are encoded together, stronger connections form between neurons in hippocampus

increase in NT release

increase in postsynaptic receptors

Automatic Processing

unconscious: SPACE, TIME, FREQUENCY

Effortful Processing

effortful, conscious processing of information

Semantic Encoding

encoding of meaning

Phonemic Encoding

encoding of sounds/sound of words

Structural Encoding

encoding of visual structure of a word

Spacing Effect

retaining information better when distributed over time

Mnemonics

any cognitive tools to help remember something

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units to help recall

Method of Loci Technique

use of mental image of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance information encoding and recall

Autobiographical Memory

memory for one’s personal history: includes facts, episodes, emotional, and personal interpretations of those episodes etc

Massed Practiced

practiced all at once

Distributed Practice

repetitive, spaced practiced

Hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Serial Position Effect

when recall is better for first items and very last ones but not the middle

Primacy Effect

very first items, works best for LTM

Recency Effect

very last items, works best for STM

Recognition

identify an item amongst other choices (multiple choice)

Recall

retrieve information without external cues
(fill in the blank)

Priming

activation of one of the associations that leads to retrieval of a certain concept from LTM

Context Congruent Memory

memory retrieval improves when content of retrieval matches context of learning

Mood Congruent Memory

memory retrieval improves when mood of retrieval matches mood of learning

State Congruent Memory

memory is best retrieved when you’re in the same physiological state as you were when you learned information

Testing Effect

testing yourself - a direct rehearsal of retrieval practice - leads to highest level of recall

Infantile Amnesia

inability to remember explicit memories from childhood

Encoding Failure

cannot retrieve information that is not encoded well

Storage Decay

memories decay in LTM storage without use

retention drops sharply early and then levels off

Retrieval Failure

tip of the tongue phenomenon

information is retained in LTM but it cannot be accessed

Proactive Interference

prior learning is interfering with recall of information

Retroactive Interference

new learning disrupting the recall of old information

Retrogade Amnesia

cannot recall old memories

Anterograde Amnesia

inability to form new memories

Alzheimer’s Disease

neurodegenerative disease that leads to dementia