Philosophy Terms (Exam)

Theism

A deity that is distinct from and transcends the world, which it creates and intervenes in

Deism

A supreme being created the world and set it in motion, but does not intervene through miracles or revelations; and can be determined by reason

Monotheism

There is one, and only one, supremely perfect, omnipotent, omniscient and omni-benevolent being who created the world (Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and others)

Polytheism

Many deities, each with a particular role in the creation or governance of the world (Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Celtic, Norse, and others)

Pantheism

God is, or is coextensive with, the world, has no personal or anthropomorphic characteristics (Lao Tzu, some FNMI cultures, pre-Socratics)

Panentheism

Everything that exists is in God, nothing exists outside or beyond God; not a person or distinct from its creation (Spinoza, Einstein, Davies)

Atheism

No such thing as a deity (Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, Russell, Sartre, Dawkins)

Agnosticism

The existence of a deity or deities cannot be known or proven (Hume)

Metaphysics

After-nature - deals with being, knowing, substance, cause, identity, time, and space

Reality

An absolute with a specific nature independent of our thoughts or feelings

Ontology

The area of philosophy that studies the nature of being and reality

Being in-itself

Non-conscious existence: stones, staplers, tables, brains, organisms

Being for-itself

Free, conscious existence enjoyed by humans alone

Phenomenology

An approach to reality from the standpoint of subjectivity

Non-conscious objects

Essence precede existence

Conscious subjects

Existence precedes essence

Ethics

Often used to describe systems and rules of right and wrong that are extrinsically developed for specific contexts (codes of ethics for schools, workplaces, social spaces, etc) - standardized

Morality

Intrinsic or personally developed concepts, principles, and habits of right and wrong that we carry with us from place to place - individualistic

Ethical Absolutism

There is one and only one set of correct moral standards that everyone should follow everywhere and always

Ethical Relativism

Because societies differ in the moral standards they accept, it follows that there is no single correct set of moral standards everyone should adopt; instead people should follow the standards that their own society accepts

Egotistic Relativism

Morality is individualistic

Social Relativism

Ethics based on social groups, rather than individual (cultural, volunteer organizations, religions, political factions, national identities, historical traditions, etc that set their own values)

Meta-ethical Relativism

Skepticism about the existence of any firm and universal moral principle

Objective

Right and wrong are true whether or not we believe it - it is beyond us

Subjective

Right and wrong depend on what a particular person or group has decided

Metaphysical grounding

Grounding for ethics based in religion

Naturalistic grounding

Grounding for ethics based on natural world and scientific discovery; evolutionary basis

Sociological grounding

Grounding for ethics based in observations of society and cultural practices

Rationalistic grounding

A grounding for ethics based in reason - if so, then all rational would be logically bound to accept and follow

Deontology

Regarding absolute duties, regardless of the outcomes

Consequentialism

Focused on arriving at the best outcome

Aristotelian

Things have a proper function - for humans the function is using reason

Thomistic Ethics

St. Thomas Aquinas integrated Christian ideals into Aristotelian ethics

Buddhism

6th Century BCE - Noble Eightfold Path towards Nirvana beyond Samsara

Confucianism

No afterlife, focus is on relationships between people

Theistic Ethics

Stems from Divine Command theories - morality is objective

Kantian Deontology

Based around Categorical Imperative

Ethical Egoism

Act in a manner that will benefit oneself, long-term

Hedonism

Same idea as Ethical Egoism, but self-interest is only pleasure as intrinsically good

Utilitarianism

How useful something is, evaluating action by how much good results, where good = happiness and pleasure = intrinsically valuable

Rule utilitarianism

Didn’t focus on acts in isolation, rather general rules of moral behaviour

Anselm’s God (ontological)

A being than which none greater can be conceived

Aquinas’ Five Ways (cosmological)

Need for a first - this is God

Teleological

There is order in nature, nature needs a designer - God

Anthropomorphic principle

Universe appears fine-tuned for human-life - demands an explanation - God