Comm 152 Final

Identity Theory

Our sense of self is largely based on how others perceive us. 

* This is directly related to the roles we play in society

Social Identity Theory

Individuals seek to affiliate with orgs and work groups to enhance self-esteem and social identity

Role

The part played by a person or thing in a particular situation

Global identity

Our integrated set of identities (roles) that makes up who we are

* It reflects our background, values, and motivations
* We try to figure out what is most important to us and how we choose to prioritize our life

Multiple Identities

People can have multiple social identities or role identities

* Social Identity Theory (social identification) emphasizes situation factors, whereas Identity Theory (role identification) emphasizes personal factors

High situational relevance, low subjective importance

Moderate salience (of a role identity)

Low situational relevance, low subjective importance

Low salience (of a role identity)

High situational relevance, high subjective importance

High salience (of a role identity)

Low situational relevance, high subjective importance

Moderate salience (of a role identity)

Relate games and play to roles

One’s normal social identities and the rules of everyday life are temporarily suspended or preserved in stylized form through the structure and rules of the game or playful activity

* Offer three qualities that make them attractive platforms for temporary identities: **safety, role contrast, and immersion**

Role contrast

The distinction between different roles

Role conflict

An individual experiences differing demands from different roles they hold

* Intra-role
* Inter-role
* Person-role

Intra-role

Conflict within one role

* Student: expected to study while having to write papers

Inter-role

Conflict within more than one role

* Parent: trying to balance work and family

Person-role

When personal values clash with role expectations

* Doctor: might have to treat a drunk driver or murderer

A state of liminality

Transitional phase in where a individual(s) or groups find themselves

* The “in-between”; no identity, still trying to figure it out

Why did the authors of “Students and their Identification with their University” believe this study was needed?

* Wanted to examine the dynamics of organizational identification in a context that has been understudied by organizational identification (OID) scholars
* Desired to illuminate the dynamics of students’ OID with their university in a richer and more rigorous fashion than in previous research
* Examine the stability of members’ organizational identification over time, in a context of internal and external environmental turbulence confronted by the organization and its members

What did researchers from “Students and their Identification with their University” find were predictors of students’ identification with their university?

* Construed external image
* Perceived interorganizational competition
* Trust in the university
* Satisfaction with the university

What did researchers from “Students and their Identification with their University” find to be a potential outcome of their identification?

Students with positive OID are more likely to be associated with intended future involvement with the university

What were the most frequently listed events/features that increased students’ identification in “Students and their Identification with their University”?

* Campus Sporting Events


* University Sponsored Social Events (ex. Concerts, lectures, orientation, etc.)
* University Sponsored Social Organizations (ex. Greek life)
* The Surrounding Primarily Student Inhabited Community (ex. Festivals, fairs, parties, “undie runs”, religious centers, etc.)

What were the most frequently listed events/features that decreased students’ identification in “Students and their Identification with their University”?

* Effects or Repercussions of the Recent Budget Crisis (ex. Raising tuition, hard to get classes, cutting programs, etc.)


* The Surrounding Primarily Student Inhabited Community (ex. Parties, “undie runs”, robberies, etc.)
* Academics or University Services (ex. Professors, classes, feeling like a number, class size, studying, academic failure, etc.)
* University Life In General (ex. Lack of tradition or active student body, poor maintenance, not living on campus, etc.)

Why did the authors of “Friends and Socialization” believe this was an important study?

Little research has been done on friendships and their effect on socialization even though friends can play an important role by →understanding each other’s situation, facilitating learning, helping to make sense of their experiences, making the experience more satisfying

In addition to acquiring medical knowledge, what else must medical students learn?

How to assimilate into medical school and develop relationships

What was the role of friends in medical students’ assimilation?

* It made med school more enjoyable
* Work & time spent in the lab more comfortable
* Lab group identity
* Emotional and instrumental support

How did the med students describe their relationships with their peers?

They framed them as “medical school friends” expressing how they didn’t feel that they’d had enough time to get to know each other, except getting through med school together

What are “dirty workers”?

Workers who perform dirty work in the process of doing tasks needed by society

* Ex. sex workers, loan sharks, sewage cleaners, cafeteria workers

What are the types of taint associated with dirty workers?

* Physical: Works with garbage, death, etc.
* butcher (low prestige), dentist (high prestige)


* Social: regular contact with stigmatized others, servile relationship
* prison guard (low prestige), social worker (high prestige)


* Moral: sinful or dubious virtue, deceptive, intrusive, confrontational
* stripper (low prestige), casino manager or police interrogator (high prestige)

What is the ironic relationship between dirty workers and self-image?

Individuals typically attempt to enhance their self-esteem from their occupational identities, but dirty workers do not suffer from low self-esteem despite the stigma

What are the three ways of transforming the meaning of dirty work?

* **Reframing**
* Transforming the meaning attached to stigmatized occupation
* Ex. Stripper focuses on her job as dancing
* **Recalibrating**
* Adjusting standards to assess how much and how good
* Ex. Stripper wore clothes most of her performance
* **Refocusing**
* The center of attention is shifted from the stigmatized features of the work to nonstigmatized aspects
* Ex. Stripper was able to pay for college

How do dirty workers become socialized to their occupations? 

* Learn to make sense of the dirty aspects of their work
* Learn to deal with outsiders’ views of their work
* Learn to adopt the common ideology bridging them from outsiders to insiders

What are some reasons that organizations may wish to adopt workplace flexibility policies?

* Increased employee attitudes
* Increased productivity
* Family relationships
* Role enrichment
* Decreased stress and exhaustion

What is ROWE?

Result Only Work Environment

* People are paid for results rather than hours worked
* Ex. Contractors

What are the two types of exit?

* Voluntary
* Involuntary

Voluntary Exit

Planned, shock resulting in quitting/job search, gradual disenchantment

Involuntary Ext

Fired or laid-off

What are the stages of voluntary turnover?

* Stage 1
* **First doubts**
* Disappointments, internal/external changes, milestones, impending events
* Stage 2
* **Weighing alternatives**
* Identity issues, org identification, embeddedness
* Stage 3
* **Turning point**
* Focal point for announcement
* Reduce cognitive dissonance
* Mobilize energy and action
* Rites of Passage: Separation
* Degradation Ceremonies
* Stage 4
* **Creating an Ex-Role**
* Factors affecting:
* Magnitude of the transition
* Visibility of the role transition
* Sentimentality and nostalgia
* Coping resources
* Liminality (in-between; no identity, still trying to figure it out)

What are the communication phases between stayers and leavers?

* Pre-announcement
* Announcement
* Exit (Post-announcement)

What occurs during the pre-announcement stage?

* Researching other options
* Going on job interviews
* Filing paperwork (two-week notice)

What occurs during the announcement stage?

* Telling people why you’re leaving
* People will start to interact with you differently
* People don’t have time for you; they don’t want to invest time in you if you’re leaving
* They might ignore you

What occurs during the post-announcement (exit) stage?

* Might have a handful of people you still interact with regularly
* If you don't have strong relationships, you will probably not maintain those relationships

Pros of turnover

* Orgs can be rid of unproductive or toxic workers


* Orgs can reorganize jobs
* Orgs can hire for fresh ideas

Cons of turnover

* Difficult, emotional


* Can cause remaining employees to become resentful or fearful
* Replacements could be hard to find or worse
* Training newcomers is expensive and time-consuming
* Newcomers usually take time to become productive

What trick does Jennifer Parks (funeral director; guest speaker) do help her keep her emotions in check?

She does math in her head

What were some of the overarching messages from the “Crafting your Life” simulation and assignment?

* Trade-offs are necessary and often painful, but learning to cope and accept these is a core life/management skill
* Clarifying priorities is critical to making choices that align with your values
* You have more agency to shape your life than you realize
* Success = living by your values/priorities
* Consider the career frameworks: Enjoyment, ability, goal (identity, lifestyle)

How did Jennifer Parks (funeral director; guest speaker) learn to manage her emotions early in her career?’

She separated herself from her work in order to focus on being there for the families as opposed to her emotions

In general, what did Jennifer Parks (funeral director; guest speaker) perceive to be the most fulfilling aspect of her work?

Being able to provide a hand and help people with their problems while handling grief

Alternative exit process

* Moving to another sector of the company
* Transferring to another location
* Promoting

What is the process when individuals are headed toward involuntary exit

* Termination
* Summary Dismissals
* Progressive Discipline
* Problem-solving break point
* Elimination break point
* Termination meetings
* Exit interviews

In the Kunda et al article with subcontractors, what was the major implication?

Unlike employees whose jobs buffer them from the hour-to-hour implications of how they spend their time, contractors were immediately exposed to the consequences of their choices about time

How are employers responding to workers’ desire for more flexibility?

Many employers dislike it (mixed responses), however they have begun offering remote options, hybrid schedules, ROWE, part-time, etc.

According to the ter Hoeven et al. study, why did the participants in the study prefer that workers go part-time rather than take leave?

It “preserved continuity”

According to the ter Hoeven et al. study, what role does organizational discourse have on the use of workplace flexibility?

Through discourse, employees make use of existing structures, while existing structures are reproduced or changed during interactions

Is there a difference in the treatment of men vs. women in organizational discourse on workplace flexibility?

Women are viewed as being less committed to the organization, and have their careers damaged because of it

What are some differences between Gen Z and Millennials?

* Gen Z is much less likely than Millennials to openly disagree with their elders, but are more likely to discuss it on social media
* Millennials prefer teamwork, whereas Gen Z doesn’t want to rely on others for success (but still want to work supported by others)

How do Gen Z, Millennials, Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers compare related to confidence?

* Baby boomers and millennials are confident

How do Gen Z, Millennials, Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers compare related to their desire to work autonomously?

* Millennials/Gen Z lack ability to work autonomously

How do Gen Z, Millennials, Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers compare related to skepticism?

* Gen X is skeptical

How do Gen Z, Millennials, Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers compare related to their desire for rigid boundaries between work and personal life?

* Baby boomers are workaholics
* Gen Xers often are unwilling to give up personal/family time for work
* They want some boundaries between work and personal time
* Millennials expect work-life balance and will adjust their schedules unilaterally, but they don’t mind having fluid boundaries


* Gen z want flexibility but they also want separation between work and their personal lives.

How do Gen Z, Millennials, Gen Xers, and Baby Boomers compare related to asking for and giving feedback?

* Millenials and Gen Z expect frequent feedback

What is the role of occupational and workgroup cultures in enhancing self-esteem?

* Strong cultures create the perception of a shared threat fosters cohesion within the occupation.
* With cohesion, they begin to see themselves as “us” and outsiders as “them.” Group identity is strengthened.
* Circumstances that enhance:
* Collective socialization
* High task interdependences
* Physical proximity between individuals
* Clear physical boundaries and isolation, and group longevity
* Dangers, demographic clustering, etc.
* Workers tend to socialize with each other
* Through social interaction and the internalization of collective values, meanings, and standards, individuals come to see themselves somewhat through the eyes of others and construct more or less stable self-definitions and a sense of self-esteem. Thus, social validation sharpens and strengthens self-definitions and self-esteem.

What are the self-esteem enhancing aspects of a professional identity?

* According to __social identity theory__, individuals seek to affiliate with orgs and work groups to enhance self-esteem and social identity.
* __Identity theory__ suggests that individuals derive some of their self-definitions from their perceptions of how others view them.
* __Social validation__ enhances self-definitions.

Why does the positive relationship between “dirty work” and self-esteem occur?

* People seek esteem-enhancing or positive self-definitions, including occupational identity (social identity theory)
* A positive sense of self is often derived by feeling as though one is working in an important and salient role

What is the major tactic many human service workers use to perform their tasks in particularly emotional situations (hint: focus)?

* Buffering
* Compartmentalizing emotions so they don’t get in the way
* “**Focus to get the job done**”
* Mask their negative emotions

What were some of the rules that new booters must follow related to information seeking?

* They are expected to be seen not heard


* Must perform observational information seeking
* High social costs associated with info seeking
* Actively involved in interpretation and sense-making
* Watch how others manage their emotions

What were some of the ways that firefighters are socialized to make danger and horrific situations less out of the ordinary?

* They’re taught to buffer (compartmentalize their emotions)
* Told to focus on getting job done
* Repeated exposure and training
* Makes chaos seem normal
* Learn to manage customers' emotions (cooperation and calm)

Front-stage self

The behavior a person performs in front of an audience (usually society, at work, etc.)

Back-stage self

* People are free of the expectations and norms that dictate front stage behavior
* People are often more relaxed and comfortable when back stage; they let their guard down and behave in ways that reflect their uninhibited or "true" selves

Surface acting

Employees display the emotions required for a job without changing how they actually feel

Deep acting

Employees change their internal feelings to align with organizational expectations, producing more natural and genuine emotional displays

Is surface level or deep acting more stressful in the long term?

Surface acting

Why was Hochschild’s study important?

Emotions are a commodity (it is a performance; part of our jobs)

* Ex. flight attendants/hostesses have to smile and be pleasant even if they don’t feel that way

Emotional Labor

When part of your work is displaying a particular set of emotions

Emotion Management

Managing one’s emotions to benefit one’s self or for well-being

Transformational leadership

Known for inspiring followers to exceed expectations and for inviting them to make radical changes in their values/aspirations

Charismatic leadership

* Known for making emotional connections with their followers


* They use passionate, values-focused rhetoric; or by setting an emotionally resonant personal example

Which theory did Waldron discuss that was meant to guide organizational members toward advancing in their work?

Step Ahead Theory

First-order emotions

Initial feelings from any encounter

Second-order emotions

Feelings that echo those felt during the original encounter, filtered through a series of conversations

* Ex. your boss yells at you and everyone hears about it. They feel horror, sympathy, glee, etc. despite not being present at the actual encounter

What are the types of workplace relationships as described by Waldron?

* Leaders/followers
* Workplace friendships
* Emotionally difficult relationships
* Team relationships
* Creative partnerships

What are the emotional requirements for the different workplace relationships described by Waldron?

* Leaders
* Transformational: inspirational
* Charismatic: emotional connectivity
* Servant: inspirational but with humility
* Authentic: positive, hopeful, resilient
* Followers
* Hardiness, perseverance, resilience, selective emotional engagement
* Passive followers: humility
* Active followers: express their feelings, but believe in conformity
* Proactive followers: assume responsibility of “co-leadership”

Step Ahead Theory

* Most important way to get ahead is to channel our efforts into building a positive relationship with our supervisor
* Ask yourself: What are my supervisor’s needs, how can I help him/her with those needs? “What are my co-workers’ needs?
* Develop work competence, develop relational skills - understand needs of supervisors and coworkers