AP Bio Midterm Review - Units 1-4

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key concepts from AP Biology Units 1 to 4, focusing on terminology related to chemistry of life, cell structure and function, cellular energetics, and cell communication.

Hydrogen Bonding

The attractive bond between a hydrogen atom bonded to an electronegative atom and another electronegative atom.

Cohesion

Water molecules attracted to other water molecules, causing surface tension.

Adhesion

Water molecules attracted to other polar substances.

High Specific Heat

Water absorbs or releases a large amount of energy to change 1 gram of water by 1°C.

High Heat of Vaporization

The amount of energy required to cause liquid to evaporate into a gas per 1 gram.

Hydrolysis

The process of adding water to break a bond.

Dehydration

The process of removing water to form a bond.

Monomer

A single molecule that can join with others to form a polymer.

Polysaccharide

A complex sugar formed from many monosaccharides.

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in a ratio of ~1:2:1.

Monosaccharide

The simplest form of sugar, such as glucose.

Disaccharide

A sugar formed from two monosaccharides, like sucrose.

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides.

Cellulose

A structural polysaccharide found in plant cell walls.

Chitin

A structural polysaccharide found in fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.

Starch

A storage polysaccharide found in plants.

Glycogen

A storage polysaccharide found in animals.

Lipids

Nonpolar molecules that include fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

Fatty Acid

A long chain hydrocarbon with a carboxyl group.

Saturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid with all single bonds; saturated with hydrogen.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid containing at least one double bond.

Phospholipid

A lipid molecule that forms the bilayers of cell membranes.

Steroid

A type of lipid that includes hormones such as cholesterol.

Nucleotide

The monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a phosphate, nitrogenous base, and pentose sugar.

Antiparallel

The directionality of two strands of DNA running in opposite directions.

Purine

A type of nitrogenous base with a double ring structure, e.g., adenine and guanine.

Pyrimidine

A type of nitrogenous base with a single ring structure, e.g., cytosine, thymine, uracil.

Base Pairing

The specific hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases (A-T, C-G in DNA).

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis and gene regulation.

Peptide Bond

The covalent bond formed between the carboxyl and amino groups of amino acids.

Primary Structure

The sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Secondary Structure

The level of protein structure characterized by alpha helices and beta sheets.

Tertiary Structure

The overall 3D shape of a protein due to interactions between R groups.

Quaternary Structure

The structure formed by the combination of two or more polypeptide chains.

Active Transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

Passive Transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane without the use of energy.

Facilitated Diffusion

The process of spontaneous passive transport of molecules across a membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration than another solution.

Isotonic Solution

A solution with equal solute concentration compared to another solution.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration than another solution.

Endocytosis

The process by which cells internalize substances by engulfing them in vesicles.

Exocytosis

The process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane to release materials outside the cell.

Signal Transduction

The process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal to an intracellular response.

Feedback Mechanisms

Processes that regulate biological systems through feedback for maintenance of homeostasis.

Cell Cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication.

Mitosis

The process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells.

Apoptosis

The process of programmed cell death.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.

Cellular Respiration

The process of converting biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP.

Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, yielding small amounts of ATP and NADH.

Krebs Cycle

A series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetate.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the electron transport chain.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

Denaturation

The structural alteration of a protein that results in the loss of its biological properties.

Metabolic Pathways

A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.

Energy Coupling

The use of energy released from one reaction to drive another reaction.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of stable internal conditions in an organism.

Hydrophilic

A property of a molecule indicating that it is water-loving and interacts favorably with water.

Hydrophobic

A property of a molecule indicating that it does not interact favorably with water.

Potential Energy

Stored energy in a system due to its position or arrangement.

Kinetic Energy

The energy an object possesses due to its motion.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in all living organisms.

Gibbs Free Energy

The energy associated with a chemical reaction that can be used to do work.

Positive Feedback

A feedback mechanism that amplifies responses and processes.

Negative Feedback

A feedback mechanism that counteracts deviations from a set point.

Signal Molecule

A molecule that induces a cellular response by binding to a specific receptor.

Ligand

A signaling molecule that binds to a receptor.

Receptor Protein

A protein that detects and responds to chemical signals.

Transcription

The process by which the genetic information in DNA is copied into RNA.

Translation

The process of protein synthesis from messenger RNA.