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Paleolithic

The period of the Stone Age associated with the evolution of humans. It predates the Neolithic period.

Neolithic

The period of the Stone Age associated with the ancient Agricultural Revolution. It follows the Paleolithic period.

Hominid

A member of a biological group including human beings and related species that walk upright -- earliest human-like creatures, lived in Africa some 3 to 4 mya

Cro Magnon

These people who are identical to modern humans appeared around 40,000 years ago. They had new tools, planned hunts, and appear to have migrated from Northern Africa to Asia and Europe.

Neanderthal

Closest extinct human relative. Fossils found in Neander Valley Germany. Lived in Europe, Asia, Middle East. Cold-weather adapted. Social structure, tools, buried dead, hunted.

Sumer

The world's first civilization, founded in Mesopotamia, which existed for over 3,000 years.

Mesopotamia

A region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that developed the first urban societies

Fertile Crescent

A geographical area of fertile land in the Middle East stretching in a broad semicircle from the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates

Code of Hammurabi

a written code of rules that guided the ancient society of Babylon. "An eye for an eye."

Epic of Gilgamesh

An epic poem from Mesopotamia, and among the earliest known works of literary writing.

Cuneiform

A form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge shaped stylus and clay tablets.

Ziggurat

A rectangular tiered temple created by the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians

Polytheism

belief in more than one god

Nile River

The world's longest river, which flows northward through East Africa into the Mediterranean Sea. The river in which early kingdoms in Egypt were centered around.

DELETE THIS Upper Egypt

Southern part of Egypt

DELETE THIS Lower Egypt

Northern Egypt

Narmer

Egyptian King who is believed to have brought 2 Egyptian Kingdoms together.

Pyramids

monumental architecture typical of Old Kingdom Egypt; used as burial sites for pharaohs.

Hieroglyphics

An ancient Egyptian writing system in which pictures were used to represent ideas and sounds

Pharaoh

A king of ancient Egypt, considered a god as well as a political and military leader.

Hatshepsut

Queen of Egypt (1473-1458 B.C.E.). Dispatched a naval expedition down the Red Sea to Punt (possibly Somalia), the faraway source of myrrh. There is evidence of opposition to a woman as ruler, and after her death her name was frequently expunged.

Akhenaton

Egyptian pharaoh of the New Kingdom; attempted to establish a one-god religion, replacing the traditional Egyptian pantheon of gods. (died in 1358 BC)

Thutmose III

Stepson of Hatshepsut; considered a great pharaoh of the New Kingdom of Egypt. Was one of the greatest conquerors and many new lands were brought under control under his reign

Ramses II

A long-lived ruler of New Kingdom Egypt (r. 1290-1224 BCE). He reached an accomodation with the Hittites of Anatolia after a standoff in battle at Kadesh in Syria. He built on a grand scale throughout Egypt.

Old Kingdom

(2575 BCE - 2134 BCE) Period in ancient Egyptian history characterized by the building of the Great Pyramids at Giza.

Middle Kingdom

2050 BC. - 1800 BC.: A new dynasty reunited Egypt. Moved the capital to Thebes. Built irrigation projects and canal between NIle and Red Sea so Egyptian ships could trade along coasts of Arabian Peninsula and East Africa. Expanded Egyptian territory:Nubia, Syria.

New Kingdom

(1550 BCE - 1100 BCE) Period in ancient Egyptian history characterized by strong pharaohs who conquered an empire that stretched from Nubia in the south, to the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia.

Sea Peoples

Unknown group of strong warriors who crushed the Hittites and destroyed cities in southwest Asia, who fought the Egyptians for 50 years.

Osiris

Egyptian god of the underworld and judge of the dead

Phoenicians

Semitic-speaking Canaanites living on the coast of modern Lebanon and Syria in the first millennium B.C.E. Famous for developing the first alphabet, which was adopted by the Greeks. From major cities such as Tyre and Sidon, these merchants and sailors explored the Mediterranean, and engaged in widespread commerce.

Hittites

The group of people who toppled the Babylonian empire and were responsible for two technological innovations--the war chariots and refinement of iron metallurgy. From central Anatolia who established an empire in Anatolia and Syria in the Late Bronze Age. With wealth from the trade in metals and military power based on chariot forces, they vied with New Kingdom Egypt over Syria.

Indo-Europeans

In about the 1500s BCE these people were migrating tribes from present-day southeast Russia. Some traveled to Europe, some to Persia, and some to India. Thus, today many people in Europe, Perisa, and India share some linguistic, cultural, and biological roots.

Semitic

Family of related languages long spoken across parts of western Asia and northern Africa. In antiquity these languages included Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician. The most widespread modern member of the this language family is Arabic.

Hebrews

Early group of people who lived in lands between Mesopotamia and Egypt. They developed the religion Judaism.

Abraham

Founder of Judaism who, according to the Bible, led his family from Ur to Canaan in obedience to God's command. Father of Isaac.

Moses

(Old Testament) the Hebrew prophet who led the Israelites from Egypt across the Red sea on a journey known as the Exodus

Monotheism

Belief in one God

David

(Old Testament) the 2nd king of the Israelites

Solomon

(Old Testament) son of David and king of Israel noted for his wisdom (10th century BC)

Jerusalem

A city in the Holy Land, regarded as sacred by Christians, Muslims, and Jews.

Torah

A Hebrew word meaning "law," referring to the first five books of the Old Testament.

Babylon

The largest and most important city in Mesopotamia. It achieved particular eminence as the capital of the king Hammurabi in the eighteenth century B.C.E. and the Neo-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in the sixth century B.C.E. (p. 29)

Assyrians

The people of Assyria who destroyed Israel's Northern Kingdom in 722 BC. Known as a warrior people who ruthlessly conquered neighboring countries; their empire stretched from east to north of the Tigris River all the way to central Egypt; used ladders, weapons like iron-tipped spears, daggers and swords, tunnels, and fearful military tactics to gain strength in their empire.

Ashurbanipal

king of Assyria who built a magnificent palace and library at Nineveh (668-627 BC)

Persians

Ethnic group that settled in what is now Iran. They were rivals for control of Mesopotamia with the Greeks, and later the Arabs. tolerant; bureaucracy; Cyrus the Great and Darius were the most famous rulers; Royal Road was their trade route and united empire; Zoroastrianism

Cyrus the Great

king of Persia and founder of the Persian empire (circa 600-529 BC)

Darius

The third king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. He ruled the empire at its peak. He organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized a new uniform money system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also worked on construction projects throughout the empire.

Zoroastrianism

One of the first monotheistic religions, particularly one with a wide following. It was central to the political and religious culture of ancient Persia.

Harappa

Site of one of the great cities of the Indus Valley civilization of the third millennium B.C.E. It was located on the northwest frontier of the zone of cultivation, and may have been a center for the acquisition of raw materials.

Mohenjo Daro

Largest city of the Indus Valley civilization. It was centrally located in the extensive floodplain of the Indus River. Little is known about the political institutions of Indus Valley communities, but the large-scale implies central planning.

Indus River

A river that flows from Tibet, through the Himalayas and Hindu Kush into the Arabian Sea.

Pakistan

In the 1920s, archaeologists discovered the existence of agricultural settlements dating back more than six thousand years in the lower Indus River valley in modern Pakistan.

Aryans

immigrants who arrived at the Ganges river valley by the year 1000 BC. Nomads from Europe and Asia who migrated to India and finally settled; Vedas from this time suggest beginning of caste system

Dravidians

One of the main groups of people in India; probably descended from the Indus River culture that flourished at the dawn of Indian civilization over 4,000 yrs. ago

Ganges River

Located in India, this river is considered sacred to Hindus and is used for spiritual cleansing, funeral rites, and other Hindu rituals.

Monsoons

seasonal wind patterns that cause wet and dry seasons

Vedas

Collections of hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals honoring the various gods of the Aryans. Ancient Sanskrit writings that are the earliest sacred texts of Hinduism.

Caste System

A Hindu social class system that controlled every aspect of daily life. High to low: Brahmins, kshatriya, vaisya, sudras, untouchables

Brahmins

Priests, at the top of the caste system which the Aryans made

Kshatriya

the second of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of warriors and administrators

Vaisyas

common people

Sudras

Caste that made up most of the Indian population; most were peasants and manual laborers; they had limited rights in society (not Ayran)

Pariahs

the name of the group of people outside the caste system; they were the contained the outcasts of society and untouchables, were not considered a part of Indian society or the caste system

Raja

prince who led an Aryan tribe in India

Arthasastra

an early Indian political treatise that sets forth many fundamental aspects of the relationship of rulers and their subjects. Written by Kautilya, one of Chandragupta's advisors, a ruler's handbook outlining how to rule a large empire. He suggested tough minded policies such as spying, and political assassination.

Law of Manu

It is a Hindu text compiled between 200 BCE and 200 CE, and it justified the caste system by arguing that acceptance of one's social status was a moral duty: good behavior as a member of a lower caste would result in good karma, increasing the likelihood of rebirth into a higher caste.

sati

The Indian custom of a widow voluntarily throwing herself on the funeral pyre of her husband.

Mahabharata

A vast epic chronicling the events leading up to a cataclysmic battle between related kinship groups in early India. It includes the Bhagavad-Gita, the most important work of Indian sacred literature. Mahayana Buddhism,Branch of Buddhism followed in China, Japan, and Central Asia. The focus is on reverence for Buddha and for bodhisattvas, enlightened persons who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment.

Chandragupta Maurya

He founded India's first empire. He was an Indian prince who conquered a large area in the Ganges River valley soon after Alexander invaded western India.

Brahmanism

ancient ritual traditions in which Brahmins played a key role; it grew out of older Vedic religious beliefs and helped lead to Hinduism

Hinduism

A religion and philosophy developed in ancient India, characterized by a belief in reincarnation and many gods.

Brahman

The term for The Universal Soul in Hinduism.

Atman

the individual soul

Moksha

The Hindu concept of the spirit's 'liberation' from the endless cycle of rebirths.

karma

The belief that actions in this life, whether good or bad, will decide your place in the next life.

Dharma

In Hindu belief, a person's religious and moral duties

Yoga

a system of exercises practiced as part of the Hindu discipline to promote control of the body and mind

Upanishads

A major book in Hinduism that is often in the form of dialogues that explored the Vedas and the religious issues that they raised.

Brahma

A Hindu god considered the creator of the world.

Vishnu

A Hindu god considered the preserver of the world

Shiva

A Hindu god considered the destroyer of the world.

Buddhism

the teaching of Buddha that life is permeated with suffering caused by desire, that suffering ceases when desire ceases, and that enlightenment obtained through right conduct and wisdom and meditation releases one from desire and suffering and rebirth. Belief system that started in India in the 500s BC. Happiness can be achieved through removal of one's desires. Believers seek enlightenment and the overcoming of suffering.

Siddhartha Gautama

The prince who is said to have founded Buddhism.

Nirvana

The state of enlightenment for Buddhists.

Bodhi

a person who has attained enlightenment but who has postponed nirvana in order to help others achieve enlightenment

Middle Path

Buddhist path of moderation, avoidance of extremes of vulgar materialism or a life of self-torture. Also known as the Eightfold Way, the Middle Path calls for right knowledge, right purpose, right speech, right conduct, right occupation, right effort, right awareness, and right meditation

Four Noble Truths

All life involves suffering; desire is the cause of suffering; elimination of desire brings an end to suffering; a disciplined life conducted life brings the elimination of desire.

Jainism

An ancient religion of India with a small following today of only about 10 million followers. Originated in the 800s BCE. They prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice rely mainly on self-effort to progress the soul up the spiritual ladder to divine consciousness. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called jina (Conqueror or Victor).

Ashoka

Third ruler of the Mauryan Empire in India (r. 270-232 B.C.E.). He converted to Buddhism and broadcast his precepts on inscribed stones and pillars, the earliest surviving Indian writing.

Rule of the Fishes

Glorification of warfare as the natural activity of kings and the aristocracy

Sanskrit

an Indo-European, Indic language, in use since c 1200 b.c. as the religious and classical literary language of India. Language of the Vedas.

Ramayana

One of the great epic tales from classical India; traces adventures of King Rama and his wife, Sita; written 4th to 2nd centuries B.C.E.

Stupa

Buddhist shrine that is shaped like a dome or mound

Three Sovereigns

they are the Heavenly Sovereign or Fu Xi, the Earthly Sovereign or Nuwa, and the Tai or Human Sovereign, Shennong.

Yellow River

Also known as the Huang-He. The second longest river in China. The majority of ancient Chinese civilizations originated in its valley.

Yangtse River

middle river and the longest; deposits into the east china sea

Geographic barriers of China

himalaya mountains/ the huang he river or yellow river

Xia Dynasty

This was the earliest known dynasty. There is no written evidence of this early time period, but artifacts have been found. The people of this time were farmers and made pottery. A legendary series of monarchs of early China, traditionally dated to 2200-1766 BCE

Shang Dynasty

Second Chinese dynasty (about 1750-1122 B.C.) which was mostly a farming society ruled by an aristocracy mostly concerned with war. They're best remembered for their art of bronze casting.

Oracle Bones

one of the animal bones or tortoise shells used by ancient Chinese priests to communicate with the gods. The earliest known Chinese writing is found on these from ritual activity of the Shang period.