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End of Cold War

The Cold War ended through a series of rapid political changes in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and introduced major reforms—glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring)—to revive the struggling Soviet economy and society. In 1987, he and U.S. President Ronald Reagan signed the INF Treaty, reducing nuclear arms and signaling cooperation. By 1989, communist governments across Eastern Europe collapsed, most notably marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a powerful symbol of Cold War division. In 1990, Germany was reunified under NATO, showing the USSR's waning influence. In 1991, after a failed coup by communist hardliners and growing republic independence movements, the Soviet Union officially dissolved in December. This marked the definitive end of the Cold War, with Boris Yeltsin emerging as the leader of the newly formed Russian Federation.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Signed in 1992 by the U.S., Canada, and Mexico and took effect in 1994. Its main goal was to eliminate trade barriers like tariffs and promote economic cooperation among the three countries. NAFTA led to a significant increase in cross-border trade and investment, especially in manufacturing and agriculture. Supporters argued it boosted economic growth and lowered consumer prices, while critics claimed it led to job losses in some U.S. industries due to outsourcing. In 2020, NAFTA was replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which updated several provisions, especially on labor rights and digital trade.

Reaganomics

Refers to the economic policies promoted by President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s. Based on supply-side economics, it aimed to boost economic growth by cutting taxes, especially for businesses and the wealthy, with the idea that benefits would "trickle down" to everyone. The key parts of Reaganomics included tax cuts, deregulation, reduced government spending on social programs, and a strong increase in defense spending. While it helped end the stagflation of the 1970s and led to a period of economic growth, critics argue it widened income inequality and significantly increased the national debt.

Berlin Airlift (1948–1949)

Major Cold War event in which the U.S. and its allies flew food, fuel, and supplies into West Berlin after the Soviet Union blockaded all ground routes to the city. The Soviets aimed to force the Allies out of Berlin and gain control over the entire city. In response, the U.S. and Britain organized around-the-clock air deliveries—eventually totaling over 2.3 million tons of supplies. The airlift lasted for 11 months and successfully broke the blockade without direct conflict. It symbolized Western commitment to resisting Soviet pressure and defending democracy in Europe.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Occurred in October 1962 and was the closest the U.S. and Soviet Union ever came to nuclear war. American spy planes discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles from the U.S. In response, President John F. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade (called a “quarantine”) to prevent more missiles from arriving. After tense negotiations, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba in exchange for a U.S. promise not to invade Cuba and a secret agreement to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey. The crisis ended peacefully but led to the creation of a hotline between Washington and Moscow to improve communication.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Landmark Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. The Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, unanimously ruled that “separate but equal” facilities—established by Plessy v. Ferguson—were inherently unequal and violated the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause. This decision overturned decades of legalized segregation and became a major catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement. While it faced heavy resistance in the South, Brown v. Board marked the beginning of the end for institutionalized segregation in America.