Untitled Flashcards Set

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions, but examines assumptions, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Overconfidence Bias

The overestimation of one’s ability to perform a task successfully.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to gather information that confirms pre-existing expectations.

Scientific Method

A self-correcting process for evaluating new ideas with observation and analysis.

Peer Reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiability

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (or operations) used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to find whether the original findings can be reproduced.

Correlation

A measure of how two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the treatment in an experiment.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the treatment in an experiment, serving as a comparison for evaluating the treatment effect.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences.

Single Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the participants are unaware of whether they received the actual treatment or placebo.

Double Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and research staff are unaware of who received the treatment or placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; an effect on behavior caused by administration of an inert substance.

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated in an experiment; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

The outcome that is measured in an experiment; may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Quantitative Research

A research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

Qualitative Research

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to the participants.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution.

Median

The middle score in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize from a sample to a population.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual, determining hereditary characteristics.

Phenotype

The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an individual.

Eugenics

The discredited idea of selectively breeding humans to promote certain characteristics.

Behavioral Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Natural Selection

The principle that inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a specific environment are passed on.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection.

Plasticity

The brain’s capacity to learn and adapt.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons, influencing nerve impulses.

Endorphins

Natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons, enabling faster transmission of impulses.

Cerebral Cortex

The body's ultimate control and information-processing center, covering the cerebral hemispheres.

Limbic System

A neural system associated with emotions and drives, located below the cerebral hemispheres.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, directing messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex.

Amygdala

Two neural clusters linked to emotion, part of the limbic system.

Hippocampus

A neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Frontal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex responsible for higher-order thinking and decision-making.

Temporal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing auditory information.

Occipital Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex responsible for visual processing.

Parietal Lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls glands and muscles of internal organs.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body for action.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body.

Sensory Receptors

Sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

Perception

The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information.

Transduction

The conversion of physical energy into neural impulses.

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Gestalt Psychology

A psychological approach emphasizing that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Depth Perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions and judge distance.

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Cognition about our cognition; awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information.

Creativity

The ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

Intuition

An effortless, immediate thought or feeling, contrasting with explicit reasoning.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information supporting our preconceptions.

Framing

The way an issue is posed, affecting decisions and judgments.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Recall

A measure of memory in which one retrieves previously learned information.

Recognition

A measure of memory where one identifies previously learned items.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Intrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning where behavior is strengthened by reinforcement.

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning where two stimuli are linked to anticipate events.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities are unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed.

Stereotype Threat

The fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group.