Untitled Flashcards Set

AP Psychology — Vocab List 

Unit 0: Introduction to Psychological Practices: Research Methods and Data Interpretation 

Module 0.1: The Scientific Attitude, Critical Thinking, and Developing Arguments

• critical thinking: thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Module 0.2: The Need for Psychological Science 

• hindsight bias: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

• overconfidence bias: the overestimation of one’s ability to perform a task successfully 

• perceiving order in random events bias: random acts do not always seem random and they help humans relieve anxiety and make sense of the world around them

• confirmation bias: tendency to gather information that evidence that confirms pre-existing expectations

• scientific approach: evidence based approach using observations and experiment

Module 0.3: The Scientific Method

• scientific method: a self-correcting process for evaluating new ideas with observation and analysis

• peer reviewers: scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

• theory: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events 

• hypothesis: a testable prediction, often implied by a theory 

• falsifiability: the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment 

• operational definition: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (or operations) used in a research study

• replication: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to find whether the basic findings can be reproduced

• non-experimental methods: case studies, surveys, naturalistic observations, meta-analysis

• experimental methods: manipulate variables to see their effects

• case studies: non-experimental technique where one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles (not sufficient by themselves) 

• naturalistic observations: non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

• surveys and interviews: non-experimental technique for obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group 

• social desirability bias: bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes 

• self-report bias: when people report their behavior inaccurately 

• sampling bias: a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

• convenience sampling: collecting research from a group that is readily available— a type of sampling bias 

• random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion 

• population: all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

Module 0.4: Correlation and Experimentation 

• correlation: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other

• correlation coefficient: a statistical index of the relationship between two variables from -1 to 1. positive means variables move in the same direction and negative means variables travel in the inverse direction (represented by r)

• variable: anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

• scatterplot: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the value of two variables— slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship and the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

• illusory correlation: perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship 

• regression toward the mean: tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back to the average 

• experiment: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

• experimental group: the group exposed to the treatment (to one version of the independent variable) in an experiment

• control group: the group not exposed to the treatment in an experiment; serves as comparison for evaluating the effect of a treatment

• random assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the two groups

• single blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the actual treatment or a placebo 

• double blind procedure: an experimental procedure in which the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the actual treatment or a placebo 

• placebo effect: experimental results caused by expectations alone; an effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent

• independent variable: the factor that is manipulated in an experiment; the variable whose effect is being studied

• confounding variable: a factor other than the one being studied that may influence a study’s result

• experimenter bias: bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs 

• dependent variable: the outcome that is measured in an experiment, the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

• validity: the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to 

Module 0.5: Research Design and Ethics in Psychology 

• quantitative research: a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

• qualitative research: a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

• confederates: people who pretend to be fellow participants but are actually part of the experiment (used only when necessary)

• informed consent: giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate 

• debriefing: the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to the participants 

• institutional review boards: screen proposals and safeguard welfare of human participants. must include one scientist, one non-scientist, and one community representative. this is used by all universities and research organizations 

Module 0.6: Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life

• descriptive statistics: numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

• histogram: a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. consider scale labels and note range

• measure of central tendency: a single score that represents a whole set of scores

• mode: the most frequently occurring scores in a set of data (simplest measure)

• bimodal distribution: two frequently occurring scores

• mean: the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. most familiar but sometimes skewed

• median: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it 

• percentile rank: the percentage of scores lower than a given score 

• skewed distribution: a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value 

• range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution 

• standard deviation: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

• normal curve: a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many times of data 

• inferential statistics: numerical data that allow one to generalize; to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population 

• meta-analysis: a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion 

• null hypothesis: the assumption that no difference between groups exists

• statistical significance: a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the results being studied 

• effect size: the strength of the relationship between two variables

• confidence interval: a range of values that likely includes the population’s true mean values 

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior 

Module 1.1: Interaction of Heredity and Environment

• behavior: anything an organism does/any action we can observe and record such as yelling, smiling, blinking, sweating, talking, tweeting, and questionnaire marking

• mental processes: internal, subjective experiences of organisms such as sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings 

• plasticicity: our brain’s enormous capacity to learn and adapt 

• nature-nurture issue: the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors — today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from an interaction between nature and nurture 

• natural selection: the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in comparison with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations 

• eugenics: discredited idea of selectively breeding humans to promote certain characteristics 

• evolutionary psychology: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection (how are humans ALIKE?)

• behavior genetics: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior (how are humans DIFFERENT?)

• adaptation: the process by which a species becomes fitted to its environment through natural selection 

• mutation: a random error in gene replication that leads to a change 

• genome: the complete instructions for making an organism, human’s common set of genes

• second darwinian revolution: the application of evolutionary principles to psychology 

• environment: every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us 

• heredity: the genetic transfer of our characteristics from parents to offspring 

• genes: the biochemical units of heredity; small segments of giant DNA molecules 

• polygenetic: the different traits of humans are influenced by many genes of small effect

• family studies: search for traits and diseases that tend to be shared by family members

• identical (monozygotic) twins: individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split into two, creating two genetically identical organisms

• fraternal (dizygotic) twins: individuals who developed from separate, fertilized eggs— they are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings but they shared a prenatal 

• environment

• interaction: the interplay that occurs when the effect of one’s factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) 

• epigenetics: “above” or “in addition to” (epi)genetics; the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression (without change in DNA)

Module 1.2: Overview of the Nervous System

• nervous system: the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

• central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord

• peripheral nervous system (PNS): the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

• nerves: bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs

• sensory (afferent) neurons: neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

• motor (efferent) neurons: neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands 

• interneurons: neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs 

• somatic nervous system: the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. also known as the skeletal nervous system

• autonomic nervous system: the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

• sympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy 

• parasympathetic nervous system: the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy 

• reflex: a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee jerk reflex 

Module 1.3A: The Neuron and Neural Firing: Neural Communication and the Endocrine System 

• neuron: a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

• cell body: the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life-support center

• dendrites: a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell-body 

• axon: the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

• myelin sheath: a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next 

• glial cells: cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory 

• action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon 

• threshold: the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse 

• refractory period: in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

• all-or-none response: a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing 

• synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the “synaptic gap” or “synaptic cleft”

• neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse 

• reuptake: a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron 

• endorphins: “morphine within”; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure 

• agonist: a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

• antagonist: a molecule that decreases a neurotransmitter’s action

• endocrine system: the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream 

• hormones: chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues 

Module 1.3B: Tolerance and Addiction in Substance Use Disorders:

• psychoactive drug: a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in [perceptions and moods

• substance use disorder: a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption 

• depressants: drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

• tolerance: the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

• addiction: an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continues despite harmful consequences

• withdrawal: the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior 

• barbiturates: drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment 

• opioids: opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

• stimulants: drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

• hallucinogens: psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

• near-death experience: an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest) often similar to drug-induced hallucinations 

Module 1.4A: The Brain: Neuroplasticity and Tools of Discovery: 

• biological psychology: the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. 

• biopsychosocial approach: an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis 

• levels of analysis: the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon 

• neuroplasticity: the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience 

• lesion: tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells) 

• EEG (electroencephalogram): an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp (function)

• MEG (magnetoencephalography): a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity (function) 

• CT (computed tomography) scan: a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure (structure)

• PET (positron emission tomography): a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task (function)

• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy (structure)

• fMRI (functional MRI): a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure (function) 

Module 1.4B: The Brain: Brain Regions and Structures

• hindbrain: consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance

• midbrain: found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information

• forebrain: consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities

• brainstem: the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

• medulla: the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

• thalamus: the forebrain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla 

• reticular formation: a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal 

• cerebellum: the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory 

• limbic system: neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives

• amygdala: two lima- bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

• hypothalamus: a limbic system neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature,) helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward

• hippocampus: a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage 

• cerebral cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

• frontal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. They enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgements). 

• parietal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position 

• occipital lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields 

• temporal lobes: the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing 

• motor cortex: a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements 

• somatosensory cortex: a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

• association areas: areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking 

• excitatory neurotransmitters: increase likelihood that a neuron will fire the action potential, through the depolarization process in the postsynaptic neuron  

• inhibitory neurotransmitter: decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential. This leads to hyperpolarization to occur which is when the inside of the neuron becomes more negative, moving the neuron further away from its threshold or intensity level needed for an action potential 

• myasthenia gravis: disrupts the communication between nerves and muscles, blocks or destroys acetylcholine receptors (muscle memory and learning), muscle weakness and fatigue 

• acetylcholine: enables muscle action, learning, and helps with memory

• substance p: helps with transmitting pain signals from the sensory neurons 

• dopamine: helps with movement, learning, attention, and emotions

• serotonin: impacts an individual's hunger, sleep, and arousal

• endorphins: help with pain control and impact on individual’s pain tolerance

• epinephrine: helps with the body’s response to high emotional situations and helps to form memories, also known as adrenaline

• norepinephrine: increases your blood pressure, heart rate, alertness, and help with the body’s fight or flight response

• glutamate: helps with long term memory and learning 

• gaba: helps with sleep, movement, and slows down your nervous system 

Module 1.4C: The Brain: Damage Response Brain Hemispheres

• neurogenesis: the formation of new neurons

• corpus callosum: the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them 

• split brain: a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

• hypothalamus: brain region controlling the pituitary gland 

• pituitary gland: secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands 

• adrenal glands: help trigger the fight or flight response (2, one on top of each kidney) (known as the hpa axis) 

• adrenaline: prepares body for emergencies, fight or flight response (adrenal glands)

• oxytocin: facilitates lactation and improves relationships via the bonding hormone (pituitary)

• cortisol: maintain homeostasis, a stress hormone (adrenal glands), some chemicals excite neural activity, others shut it down 

• GABA: antagonist, inhibitory 

• psychoactive drugs: are chemical substances that alter perception and moods. while some psychoactive drugs can be used in moderation to help with concentration or pain relief, others can lead to addiction and substance use disorder (a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk 

Module 1.5A: Sleep: Consciousness

• consciousness: our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

• cognitive neuroscience: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating) 

• dual processing: the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on senate conscious and unconscious tracks 

• blindsight: a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it  

• parallel processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously 

• sequential processing: processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems 

Module 1.5B: Sleep: Sleep Stages and Theories 

• sleep: a periodic, natural loss of consciousness— as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation 

• circadian rhythm: our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle 

• REM sleep: rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active 

• alpha waves: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state 

• NREM sleep: non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep 

• hallucinations: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus 

• hypnagogic sensations: bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep (also called hypnic sensations) 

• delta waves: the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep 

• suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness 

Module 1.5C: Sleep: Sleep Loss, Sleep Disorders, and Dreams

• insomnia: recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

• narcolepsy: a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. 

• sleep apnea: a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings 

• REM sleep behavior disorder: a sleep disorder in which normal REM sleep paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one’s dream

• dream: a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind 

• REM rebound: the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation 

Module 1.6A: Sensation: Basic Concepts

• sensation:the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

• sensory receptors: sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli

• perception: the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful 

• bottom-up processing: information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information 

• top-down processing: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

• transduction: a conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret

• psychophysics: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of a stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

• absolute threshold: the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

• single detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detecting depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation and alertness

• subliminal: below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

• priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

• difference threshold: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (experiences as a “just noticeable” difference

• Weber’s law: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

• sensory adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation 

Module 1.6B: Sensation: Vision

• wavelength: the distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission

• hue: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so on

• intensity: the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height). 

• cornea: the eye’s clear, protective outer layer that covers the pupil and iris 

• pupil: the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

• iris: a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of pupil opening 

• lens: the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina 

• retina: the light sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information  

• accommodation: the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina

• rods: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement. Rods are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond 

• cones: retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. cones detect fine detail and give ride to color sensations

• optic nerve: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

• blind spot: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

• fovea: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster 

• Trichromatic Theory: the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors— one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue— which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color 

• Opponent Process Theory: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green 

• Feature Detectors: nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement 

• Parallel Processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously 

Module 1.6C: Sensation: Hearing 

• audition: the sense or act of hearing 

• frequency: the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

• pitch: a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency 

• middle ear: the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window 

• cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses

• inner ear: the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs 

• sensorineural hearing loss: the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness

• conduction hearing loss: a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea 

• cochlear implant: a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

• place theory: in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated (aka place coding) 

• frequency theory: in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, enabling us to sense its pitch (aka temporal coding

Module 1.6D: Sensation: Skin, Chemical, and Body Senses and Sensory Interaction

• gate-control theory: the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers, and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain 

• gustation: our sense of taste 

• olfaction: our sense of smell 

• kinesthesis: our movements sense; our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

• vestibular sense: our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance 

• sensory interaction: the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste 

• embodied cognition: the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements 

Unit 2: Cognition

Module 2.1A: Perception: Influences on Perception 

• selective attention: focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus 

• inattentional blindness: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere 

• change blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness 

• perceptual set: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another 

Module 2.1B: Perception: Perceptual Organization and Interpretation 

• gestalt: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes 

• figure-ground: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) 

• grouping: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups 

• depth perception: the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance 

• visual cliff: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

• binocular cue: a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes 

• convergence: a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retina images 

• retinal disparity: a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance— the greater the disparity (difference) between the two image, the close the object 

• monocular cue: a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone 

• stroboscopic movement: an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images 

• phi phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession 

• autokinetic effect: the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room 

• perceptual constancy: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change 

• color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object 

• perceptual adaptation: the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. 

Module 2.2A: Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgements, and Decision Making: Concepts and Creativity

• cognition: all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating 

• metacognition: cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes

• concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

• prototype: a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to prototypical birds, such as a crow)

• schema: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information 

• assimilation: interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

• accommodation: adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information 

• creativity: the ability to produce new and valuable ideas 

• convergent thinking: narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution 

• divergent thinking: expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions 

• aptitude: the ability to learn 

• functional fixedness: occurs when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions 

Module 2.2B: Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgements, and Decision Making: Solving Problems and Making Decisions

• executive functions: cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior 

• algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier— but also more error-prone— use of heuristics

• heuristic: a simple thinking strategy— a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently 

• insight: a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

• confirmation bias: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

• fixation: in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving 

• mental set: a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past 

• intuition: an effortless, immediate automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

• representativeness heuristic: judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

• availability heuristic: judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common 

• overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident than correct— to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements 

• belief perseverance: the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited 

• framing: the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements 

• nudge: framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions 

• gambler's fallacy: occurs when people observe random events happening repeatedly as an indication of future events using the representative heuristic (coin lands on heads 8 times, the 9th must be a tails) 

Module 2.3: Introduction to Memory 

• memory: the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

• recall: a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank sheet

• recognition: a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

• relearning: a measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material again

• encoding: the process of getting information into the memory system— for example, by extracting meaning 

• storage: the process of retaining encoded information over time

• retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage

• parallel processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

• sensory memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system 

• short- term memory: briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten 

• long-term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

• working memory: a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long term memory

• central executive: a working memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad 

• phonological loop: a working memory component that briefly holds auditory information

• visuospatial sketchpad: a working memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

• neurogenesis: the formation of new neurons

• long-term potentiation (LTP): an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory 

Module 2.4: Encoding Memories

• explicit memory: retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and 

declare” (also called declarative memory)

• effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort 

• automatic processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

• implicit memory: retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

• iconic memory: a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second 

• echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

• chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically 

• mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices 

• spacing effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

• testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a “retrieval practice effect” or “test-enhanced learning”

• shallow processing: encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

• deep processing: encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Module 2.5: Storing Memories

• semantic memory: explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory)

• episodic memory: explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory)

• Hippocampus: a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories– of facts and events– for storage

• memory consolidation: the neural storage of a long term memory

• flashbulb memory: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Module 2.6: Retrieving Memories

• priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

• encoding specificity principle: the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us to recall it

• mood congruent memory: the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood 

• serial position effect: our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primary effect)

• interleaving: a learning technique that involves studying multiple subjects or topics at the same time rather than focusing on one topic at a time. It is a type of retrieval practice that helps students apply their existing knowledge to new material 

Module 2.7: Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges

• anterograde amnesia: an inability to form new memories 

• retrograde amnesia: an inability to recall past memories 

• interference: inability to recall memories due to competing information 

• proactive interference: the forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

• interference: the backwarding acting disruptive effect of newer learning on old information 

• repression: the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories 

• reconsolidation: the process of condensing a memory to minimal information, meaning some details may be left out 

• misinformation effect: a phenomenon that occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

• source amnesia: impaired memory for how, when, or where a memory came from

Module 2.8A: Intelligence and Achievement: Theories of Intelligence

• intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations 

• general intelligence (g): according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test 

• factor analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

• fluid intelligence (Gf): our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood 

• crystallized intelligence (Gc): our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tend to increase with age 

• Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory: the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as special abilities, bridged by Gf and Gc

• Savant Syndrome: a condition in which a person otherwise limited by mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing 

• grit: in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals 

• emotional intelligence: the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions 

Module 2.8B: Intelligence and Achievement: Assessing Intelligence

• intelligence test: a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores 

• achievement test: a test designed to assess what a person has learned

• aptitude test: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn 

• mental age: a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does well as an average 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8

• Stanford-Binet: the widely used American revision (by Terman and Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test 

• Intelligence quotient (IQ): defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ=100(ma/ca). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for an given age is assigned a score of 100

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

• psychometrics: the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

• standardization: defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group 

• normal curve: the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes 

• Flynn effect: the rise in intelligence test performance overtime and across cultures 

• reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting 

• validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to 

• content validity: the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

• construct validity: how much a test measures a concept or trait 

• predictive validity: the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior (also called criterion-related validity)

Module 2.8C: Intelligence and Achievement: Stability of, and Influence on, Intelligence

• cross-sectional study: research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time 

• longitudinal study: research that follows and retests the same people over time 

• cohort: a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as being from a given time period 

• growth mindset: a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed 

• fixed mindset: the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort

Module 2.8D: Intelligence and Achievement: Group Differences and the Question of Bias 

• stereotype threat: a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype 

Module 3.7A: Classical Conditioning: Basic Concepts

• learning: the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors 

• habituation: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation 

• associative learning: learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning) 

• stimulus: any event or situation that evokes a response

• respondent behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus 

• operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence 

• cognitive learning: the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language 

• classical conditioning: a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to illicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food) 

• behaviorism: the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. 

• neutral stimulus (NS): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

• unconditioned response (UCR): in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (such as food in the mouth)

• unconditioned stimulus (UCS): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally— naturally and automatically— triggers an unconditioned response (UCR)

• conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

• conditioned stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

• acquisition: in classical conditioning, the initial stage— when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response)

• high-order conditioning: a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone (also called second-order conditioning)

• extinction: in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)

• spontaneous recovery: the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response 

• generalization: (also called stimulus generalization) in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)

• discrimination: in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Module 3.7B: Classical Conditioning: Applications and Biological Limits 

• preparedness: a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value 

Module 3.8A: Operant Conditioning: Basic Concepts

• operant conditioning: a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if allowed by a punisher 

• law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely 

• operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

• reinforcement: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

• shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior 

• discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

• positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

• negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

• primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need 

• conditioned reinforcer: a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (also known as a secondary reinforcer)

• reinforcement schedule: pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

• continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing the desired response every single time it occurs

• partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement 

• fixed-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific ed number of responses

• variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a reponse after an unpredictable number of responses 

• fixed-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed 

• variable-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

• punishment: an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows 

Module 3.8B: Operant Conditioning: Applications, Biological Limits, and Contrasts with Classical Conditioning 

• instinctive drift: the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns 

Module 3.9: Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

• cognitive map: a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it 

• latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

• insight learning: solving problems through sudden insight; contrast with strategy based solutions

• observational learning: learning by observing others (also called social learning)

• modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior 

• mirror neurons: neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy 

• prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

• antisocial behavior: negative, destructive, harmful behavior. The opposite of prosocial behavior