NMAT SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW

key persons for structuralism

Edward Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt

used the method of introspection to identify the basic elements of "structures" of psychological experience

structuralism

the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes

structuralism

declined due to subjectivity of perception

structuralism

key person for functionalism

William James

mental processes operate in individuals and how they contribute to their adaptation to their environment

functionalism

key persons for Gestalt Psychology

Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka

claims that an individual perceives an object as a whole, not in parts or bits

Gestalt Psychology

key persons for psychoanalsysis

Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson

proposes that a person's behavior is influenced by their unconscious drives

psychoanalysis

stresses the importance of early life experiences

psychoanalysis

key persons for behaviorism

John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner

emerged as a response to claims that psychology is a pseudoscience

behaviorism

proposes that all behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment

behaviorism

diagnosing and treating mental health disorders, such as anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia

clinical psychology

helping individuals cope with life challenges, personal development, and mental well-being

counseling psychology

enhancing workplace productivity, employee satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness

industrial psychology

applying psychological principles to improve learning, teaching, and student performance

educational psychology

using psychological knowledge in legal and criminal justice settings, including criminal profiling and witness evaluation

forensic

Psychology

studying the connection between

psychological factors and physical health to promote better health behaviors.

health

Psychology

helping athletes improve performance and mental resilience in competitive environments.

sports

Psychology

improving the design of tools, machines, and systems for better human interaction and safety.

human

Factors

Psychology

examining how environmental factors influence human behavior and well being.

environmental Psychology

assisting individuals with disabilities or chronic illnesses in adapting to their conditions.

rehabilitation Psychology

addressing social and community issues to promote well-being at a group or societal level.

community

Psychology

widely uses the experimental method where ___________________ are manipulated to measure effects on _________________

independent variables and dependent variables

selecting a non-representative sample, leading to inaccurate or skewed conclusions.

sampling Bias

__________ are common in psychology because they help distinguish the influence of genetics and environment on behavior by comparing identical and ____________

twin studies, fraternal twins

experimenter bias

a researcher's expectations

unintentionally influence data collection or interpretation.

hawthorne effect

participants change their behavior simply because they know they are being observed.

social desirability bias

participants give responses they think are more socially acceptable rather than truthful.

confirmation bias

favoring information that aligns with preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

halo effect

a person's overall impression of something (e.g., attractiveness, status) influences judgments about unrelated traits.

recall bias

errors in self-reported data due to inaccurate or selective memory of past events.

sleeper effect

information initially seen as

unreliable becomes more

persuasive over time.

publication bias

studies with positive or significant findings are more likely to be published, while negative results are underreported.

reliability

consistency and stability of a test's results over time or across different raters

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure

standardization

ensuring uniform administration, scoring, and interpretation of test results

norms

reference scores that allow comparison to a larger population.

sensitivity

ability to detect a condition when it is present

specificity

ability to rule out a condition when it is absent

test characteristics

reliability, validity, standardization

psychological tests

categories of tests used to assess different psychological traits and abilities

intelligence tests

measure cognitive abilities, problem solving skills, and intellectual potential (e.g., Wechsler Intelligence Scale, Stanford-Binet Test)

achievement tests

assess knowledge and skills in specific areas, often used in education (e.g., SAT, National Achievement Test).

aptitude tests

predict an individual's potential to learn or succeed in a particular area (e.g., Differential Aptitude Tests, LSAT).

personality tests

evaluate behavioral traits, temperament, and emotional functioning (e.g., MMPI, Big Five Personality Test)

projective tests

a subtype of personality tests using ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts and motives

neuropsychological Tests

examine cognitive functioning and detect brain-related impairments (e.g., Stroop Test, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test)

clinical and diagnostic tests

identify mental health conditions based on psychological symptoms (e.g., Beck Depression Inventory, SCID for DSM-5)

Nervous System: Composed of Central Nervous System (______ & __________) and Peripheral Nervous System (_____ & ___________)

brain, spinal cord and cranial, spinal nerves

basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, which consists of a ________ (soma), _______ (receive signals), and an _____ (transmits signals)

cell body, dendrites, and axon

frontal

controls executive functions, decision-making and working memory

prefrontal

voluntary motor activity (Primary motor cortex)

broca’s area

speech production

processes sensory information (Primary somatosensory cortex), like touch, pressure, and spatial awareness

parietal

manages auditory processing,  memory, and language comprehension  

temporal

language comprehension

wernicke’s area

specializes in visual processing and interpretation (Visual cortex)

occipital

handles emotion processing,  particularly fear and aggression

amygdaala

critical for memory formation and  spatial navigation

hippocampus

acts as relay station for sensory and motor  signals to the cerebral  cortex

thalamus

maintains homeostasis by controlling hormones, hunger, thirst, and autonomic functions

hypothalamus

regulates breathing and sleep

pons

responsible for coordination and balance

cerebellum

controls autonomic functions like heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure

medulla oblongata

on Schizophrenia and brain structure: The brain has  fluid-filled spaces called _________, which contain  cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In schizophrenia, neuroimaging  may show enlarged _________, suggesting brain cell  atrophy that could contribute to the disorder

ventricles, ventricles

function: involved in muscle contraction, learning and memory

acetylcholine (Ach)

associated disorders: alzheimer’s disease, myasthenia gravis

acetylcholine (Ach)

function: regulates movement, reward, motivation, and pleasure

dopamine (DA)

associated disorders: parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, addiciton

dopamine (DA)

function: regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and cognition, plays a role in regulating gastrointestinal functions

serotonin (5-HT)

associated disorders: depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders

serotonin (5-HT)

function: involved in arousal, attention, and stress response.

norepinephrine (NE)

associated disorders: depression, ADHD, anxiety disorders

norepinephrine (NE)

function: inhibitory neurotransmitter, regulates neuronal excitability, contributes to  the regulation of muscle tone

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

associated disorders: anxiety disorders, insomnia, epilepsy

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

function: excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning and memory. Most  abundant neurotransmitter in the brain

glutamate

associated disorders: multiple sclerosis, epilepsy

glutamate

function: modulate pain perception and emotions, act as natural painkillers and induce feelings of euphoria

endorphins

associated disorders: pain disorders, mood disorders

endorphins

NREM (non-rapid eye movement sleep)

1. falling asleep

2. light sleep

3. deep sleep

falling asleep

• transition from

wakefulness to sleep.

• dominated by alpha waves

• lasts a few minutes.

light sleep

• decreased heart rate and body temperature

• dominated by theta waves

• accounts for majority of sleep time

deep sleep

• most restorative stage

• body repair and growth immune system strengthening, memory consolidation

• dominated by delta waves

REM (rapid eye movement sleep)

• rapid eye movements, vivid dreams

• muscle paralysis except for respiratory and eye muscles

• dominated by beta waves

• brain activity similar to wakefulness with rapid low-voltage waves

• increased heart rate, irregular breathing 

• important for cognitive function, emotional regulation, memory consolidation

• REM cycles increase in length as night progresses

increased alertness, attention, and energy while elevating blood pressure and heart rate

stimulant

examples: cocaine, methamphetamine/amphetamines (e.g. adderall), caffeine, nicotine

stimulant

decrease arousal and simulation in the brain, leading to feeling of relaxation, and sedation

depressant

examples: alcohol, benzodiazepines (e.g. xanax, valium), barbiturates

depressant

after perception thoughts, and feelings, often leading to hallucinations or profound changes in consciousness

hallucinogen

examples: LSD, Psilocybin (magic mushrooms), DMT (dimethyltryptamines), PCP (phencyclidine)

hallucinogen

relieve pain by binding to receptions in the brain and spinal cord, often leading to feelings of euphoria and sedation

opiod

examples: heroin, morphine, codeine, oxycodone 

opiod

seeing things as they are, free from bias; sensation is largely objective, while perception is shaped by experience and expectations

objectivity

difference threshold

(just noticeable difference)

smallest detectable change in stimulus

difference threshold

minimum intensity of a stimulus needed for detection 50% of the time

absolute threshold

reduced sensitivity to constant stimuli over time

sensory adaptation