Church History Midterm Study Guide

Adversus Judaeos

Adversus Judaeos

Genre of literature aimed at opposing or refuting the Jews; an important part in the process of Christianity’s separation from Judaism

Agonistic culture

From Greek agona meaning “to struggle” – used to describe the cultural situation at the time of Jesus when various groups (e.g. Pharisees, Sadducees, etc.) competed or struggled with one another for positions of honor and authority

"Alexandrian school"

Used to refer to the Logos/sarx Christological model in which there is a very close inseparable union between the human and divine natures of Christ; cf. Logos/sarx

allegorical interpretation

Interpretation of scripture that relies heavily on the search for symbolic meanings or “allegories” in the text; heavily utilized in the Alexandrian tradition as seen in the Jewish philosopher Philo and later Christian theologians/exegetes like Origen

Anomoios

Not at all like [the Father] – Held by 2nd generation Arians

"Antiochene school"

Used to refer to the Logos/anthropos Christological model in which there is a very loose union between the human and divine natures of Christ or an “indwelling” of the Word in Jesus, cf. Logos/anthropos also Nestorius

Apokatastasis/universal salvation

Eventually EVERYONE (including Satan) will be saved. This idea is found in the thought of Origen and occasionally (or somewhat) in that of others influenced by Origen (including Gregory of Nyssa)

Apologia/apologists

Defense or explanation of the faith

Apostle/Apostolos

Literally: One sent forth; a messenger. Specifically: One of the twelve disciples of Christ, specially chosen as his companion and witness, and sent forth to preach the gospel.  Also those of equal office and dignity, i.e. Paul.

Apostolic succession

Handing on of Apostolic Tradition and authority.

Apostolic tradition

The unwritten tradition of the Church handed down from the Apostles.

Apostasy

Denial of one’s faith

Canon of Scripture

The collection of books received as genuine Holy Scriptures

Communication of idioms

“A technical expression in the theology of the Incarnation. It means that the properties of the Divine Word can be ascribed to the man Christ, and that the properties of the man Christ can be predicated of the Word. The language of Scripture and of the Fathers shows that such a mutual interexchange of predicates is legitimate; in this article its source and the rules determining its use will be briefly considered.” Used to combat Nestorianism

communio

early “networking” in the early Church whereby local Christian communities recognized and relied on one another thereby establishing the universal Church

Confessor

One who suffers for the faith but is not killed

Creed

A definite summary of what is believed.

Deacon (diakonia)

The first level of Holy Orders

Demiurge

The word literally means “fashioner,” it is used by most Gnostics to describe the being who created or fashioned the material world.  Considered the most inferior and evil god.

Diaspora

Jews living outside of the area of the Promised Land

Docetism

from the Greek dokeo which means “to appear”; docetic Christology such as that found in many Gnostic groups contends that Christ only appeared to be human but in fact was not human at all – part of the Gnostic rejection of the physical world as evil

Dualism

Cosmos is made up of sources of good and evil, eternally in opposition to one another.

Ekklesia

Greek word meaning “assembly” but translated in the NT as “church” (the early church was the “assembly of believers”); we get such English words as “ecclesial” and “ecclesiology” from this

Episcopos/bishop

Successor of the Apostles. Highest level of Holy Orders. Shepherd of a local church community.

Gentile-Christians

Followers of Jesus from a Gentile background (e.g. Titus)

Gnosis/Gnosticism

Greek word for “knowledge” which was used to describe heretical sects that claimed to possess a secret knowledge that was necessary for salvation but only revealed to select individuals. Most pernicious and deadly heresy for the early Church. Body = bad; soul = good

‘God fearers’ / Greek sympathizers

Gentiles who were in some ways attracted to Judaism without fully converting to Judaism; may have variously participated in synagogue life; likely objects of Paul’s missionary activity

Heresy

Incorrect teaching. Opposite of orthodox. From the Greek word for “choice”.

Homoiousios

Of similar essence/nature – Closest to Nicene’s position.

Homoios

Like [the Father] (doesn’t specify how Christ is like the Father)

Homoousios

Of the same essence/nature. Christ is of the same essence as the Father. The first time the universal Church will use non-biblical language in doctrine. Defined definitively at the Council of Nicea.

House-churches

A term used by modern historians to describe the meeting places of early followers of Jesus; these early Christian communities often gathered in the home of one of their members, hence the term

Hypostasis

Means: “realities” or “essence/nature”. Most Eastern theologians used hypostasis to refer to “realities” of the Trinity; thus they spoke of 3 hypostases.

Hypostatic Union

phrase used by Cyril of Alexandria to describe the inseparable bond between Christ’s human & divine natures (see Alexandrian school &/or Logos/sarx Christology)

Imitatio Christi

Means "imitation of Christ," but it is important to know how/when/why it was used.  We encounter it in stories &/or interpretations of the early martyrs (e.g. Polycarp) who by their death imitate Christ (recall Ignatius saying that it was in martyrdom that he would become a "true disciple").  Later on, ascetics will be described much in the same fashion.  Although they are not making the supreme sacrifice of death for the faith; they nevertheless are seen as imitating Christ by their giving up of worldly goods, possessions, comforts, etc.

Jewish-Christians

Followers of Jesus from a Jewish background (e.g. Peter, James, Paul, etc.)

Judaizers

A term Paul uses in Galatians to describe those who try to force Gentile-Christians to be circumcised and to follow the whole of the Jewish Law

Kyrios

Greek word translated as “Lord” but also the equivalent of the Hebrew Adonai; when Paul (and others) begin using Kyrios in reference to Jesus they are clearly implying a belief in his divinity

Labarum

Constantine’s battle standard that contained the Chi Rho monogram as symbol for the Christian God

Lapsi

One who falls away from the faith during persecution

Logos Christology

Logos: The divine word, the Son of God. Logos Christology: The Apolinarian idea that, in Christ, the divine Logos replaces the Human Nous

Logos/Anthropos

Used to refer to the Christological model in which there is a very loose union between the human and divine natures of Christ or an “indwelling” of the Word in Jesus, cf. “Antiochene school”.  i.e. “The word is ‘indwelling’ in a human being”

Logos/sarx

Used to refer to the Christological model in which there is a very close inseparable union between the human and divine natures of Christ; cf. “Alexandrian school”. “The Word became flesh”-inseparably

Martyr (martyria)

Means “witness”; One who willingly gives his life for the faith

Messiah/Christos

Hebrew/Greek for “anointed one”. Very open ended as to who/what this person might be like. Also, not necessarily God.

Modalism (also: Sabellianism)

God changes into the Son.  The Son is a temporary morph of God. God is one, but he takes on different forms in each of the three persons of the Trinity.

Monarchical episcopate

The development of a hierarchical leadership in the Church whereby one bishop governs over the local Church

Montanism

A schismatic group in early Christianity that originated around the year 170, following the teachings of a certain Montanus from Phrygia; also influential were the two prophetesses Priscilla & Maximilla. Chief characteristics included: the role & return of charismatic prophets; a strong eschatological emphasis on the imminent return of Christ; and a rigorist life-style that demanded harsh asceticism, voluntary martyrdom, and a renunciation of this world by its members. Montanism’s most famous “convert” was the North African Latin apologist, Tertullian.

Monophysites

Teaches that in Christ only “one nature” (mono = “one”; physis = “nature”) remains after the Incarnation (see Dioscorus of Alexandria & Eutyches)

Nous

Mind, intellect, directing principle of anthropos

Orthodoxy

Correct teaching or belief

Ousios

Essence/nature

Pleroma

the word literally means “fullness” and was used by Gnostics to describe the fullness or totality of divine powers; Gnostics often described (rather fanciful) arrangements of divine beings (aeons) that filled the cosmos

Pneumatomachians

literally means “spirit fighters”; the term was used for those who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit

Presbyter

Means “Elder;” the term is used to describe those who were ordained in order to assist the bishops in their ministry

Psyche

Soul

Sarx

Flesh; Body

Subordinationist Christology

Belief that the Son is subordinate, or less than, the Father in some way. Arius was a subordinationist.

Superstitio

Term used by Romans to describe bizarre and irrational behavior that was perceived to be at odds with traditional Roman religion; the opposite of “religio” or “pietas” - Romans accused Christians of this behavior

Syncretism

The tendency to draw and mix elements from a number of different backgrounds or influences; we described Gnosticism as very “syncretistic” because Gnostics exhibit elements from many different sources (i.e. Greek, Hebrew, Christian, Persian, etc.)

Theotokos

The word literally means “bearer (or mother) of God” – this title for Mary was rejected by Nestorius. Instead, he preferred to call Mary Christotokos (“mother of Christ”) or Anthropotokos (“bearer or mother of the human person” [Jesus]).

Traditore

One who betrays the faith by allowing something sacred to be confiscated during a persecution and thus compromised their faith. Usually clergy members.

Tres Gentes

Literally means “third nation/people”; once Christianity separated from Judaism they often referred to or thought of themselves as a “third nation” (Judaism & paganism being the other two) – see last Venn diagram in the lecture on the separation of Christianity from Judaism

Apollinaris of Laodicaea

310-c.390.  Student in Athens with Julian.  Wrote epics, comedies, tragedies, music, etc.  Consecrated bishop ca. 360.  Engaged in struggle against the Anomoions.  By 362, his Christology was being scrutinized: denounced by Cappadocians, condemned by Damasus and Roman synod of 377, condemned at the Council of Constantinople.    Continued as leader of schismatic community.

Arius

c.260-336. Presbyter.  Conflict with bishop, Alexander, about nature of the Son.  Condemned at local synod.  Solicited support.  Taught that Son was a creature and not equal with God.  Condemned at Council of Nicea and exiled.

Athanasius of Alexandria

Is extremely important as the most staunch supporter of the Nicene Creed. A deacon of Alexander's at the Council of Nicea in 325, he will succeed him as Patriarch of Alexandria and will hold that post for many decades although he will be deposed and exiled numerous times in his career as a result of the on-going struggle [an imperial oscillation] between those who accept and those who reject the Nicene Creed.

Basil of Caesarea

330-379.  Educated by Father, then in Caesarea, Constantinople, and Athens.  Drawn to monastic life.  Ordained a priest in 362; then auxiliary bishop in 364; and “full” bishop in 370.  Known for charity, and for talent as administrator.  Helped appoint like-minded bishops to stop Arianism.

Clement of Alexandria

ca. 150-ca. 215.  Roman citizen from Athens, pagan family.  Had major philosophical teachers.  Converted to Christianity.  Established school at Alexandria.

Clement of Rome

Author of First Letter of clement to the Corinthians (I Clement) which used when discussing early internal life of the Church; the third “successor of St. Peter” in the traditional lists of Popes/Bishops of Rome

Constantine

c.272-337.  Becomes sole emperor in 324.  Battle of Milvian bridge in 312, had vision of cross, painted Chi-Rho on banners and shields, won battle.  Converted to Christianity.  First Christian Roman emperor.  Issued Edict of Milan which removed penalties from Christians.  Built churches of St. Peters and Holy Sepulcher.  Called council of Nicea. 

Cyprian of Carthage

Bishop of Carthage ca. 250 during the persecutions of Decius and then Valerius (died as martyr in latter persecution); wrote on the Unity of the Church and also important for the development of penitential process in the wake of persecutions

Cyril of Alexandria

Proponent of the so-called “Alexandrian school” of Christology (i.e. the Logos/sarx model); opposed Nestorius at the time of the Council of Ephesus in 431

Donatus and the Donatists

Were part of a schismatic group that grew out of the persecutions and in particular against any element(s) in the Church that compromised with Roman authorities during the persecutions.

Decius

c.201-251. Emperor of Rome 249-51. Also known as Trajan. Suppressed Christianity.

Diocletian

244-311.  Born of low status, gained military status and was acclaimed Roman Emperor by troops.  Ruled from 284-305.  Initiated a great persecution of Christians.

Dioscorus of Alexandria

Leading proponent of the Monophysite party to be discussed next class; patriarch of Alexandria (Cyril’s successor)

Eunomius

Leader of the Anomoions, Arian party that said the Son “was not like” (anomoios) the Father; opposed by the Cappadocians

Eusebius of Caesarea

Is important for a couple of things. He is a chief leader of the so-called "Middle" or "Origenist" party at & after the Council of Nicea; thus he represents those who somewhat try to undermine the more ardent interpretation of Nicene Creed. He is also the source of much of our information about the early Church (he is sometimes called "the first church historian") and about Constantine (his "Life of Constantine" and his panegyric to the emperor on the 30th anniversary of the latter's succession are key sources on Constantine).

Eutyches

Leading proponent of the Monophysite party to be discussed next class; monk in the imperial court at Constantinople

Gregory of Nazianzus

c.329-c.390.  Educated at Nazianzus, Caesarea, Alexandria, Athens.  School mate and friend of Basil.  Drawn to ascetic life.  Ordained priest, later bishop of Sasim.  Made patriarch of Constantinople, retired from pressure at Council of Constantinople because he had 2 sees.  Opposed Arians et al.

Gregory of Nyssa

c.335-c.395.  Younger brother of Basil.  Self taught.  Ordained priest and made bishop of Nyssa by Basil.  Known for rhetorical prowess, mystical spirituality, and speculative theology.  Important force at the Council of Constantinople.

Ignatius of Antioch

Bishop of Antioch who wrote letters to various communities on his way to martyrdom in Rome ca. 105. Focused on the importance of union with the bishop and the threats of docetism and Judaizing.

Irenaeus

Wrote against various heresies, especially Gnostics; although he is also important as the source for early lists of episcopal succession (Rome and elsewhere) also for his development and use of key arguments against the heretics including: apostolic succession, apostolic tradition, etc.

John of Antioch

Bishop of Antioch who first opposed Cyril and the decisions of the Council of Ephesus (431) but who then through the “Formula of Reunion” reestablished good relations between Antioch and Alexandria – language from this document will be central in the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon in 451

Julian the emperor

“the Apostate” – Roman emperor (360-363) who apostatized from Christianity and tried to instigate a revival of paganism

Justin (the Martyr)

Born late 1^st C. died ca. 165; Suffered martyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurelius.  Itinerant teacher.  Publicly disputed with pagans, Jews, heretics.  Wrote an apologia to the emperor, but also to strengthen Christians in which he argued that Christians are good people and Christianity should at least be tolerated.

Leo I (the Great) of Rome

Bishop of Rome who supports Flavian, the Patriarch of Constantinople in his effort against Eutyches and the Monophysites. His letter or Tome will also be important for the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon in 451

Mani

leader of a quasi-Gnostic sect (Manichaeanism) to which Augustine will be drawn early in his life

Marcion

Is sometimes joined with the Gnostics (although there is much about his thinking that is different from Gnosticism) because he rejected the God of the Old Testament and hence developed a canon of scripture that completely eliminated the OT, most of the Gospels (except for a "corrected" version of Luke) and many of the other NT books (or parts of letters) that seemed (to him) to be "contaminated" with Jewish influences. He was quite effective and drew quite a large number of people into his alternative churches.   It would appear that he pushed both the need and the idea for the Church to establish its own Canon of Scripture.

Nestorius

To be discussed next class; leading of the so-called “Antiochene school” of Christology (the Logos/anthropos model); opposed by Cyril of Alexandria and deposed at the Council of Ephesus in 431

John Henry Cardinal Newman

late 19th century convert to Catholicism; we used his quote “doctrine is not defined until it has been violated” to begin our discussion of the development of Trinitarian doctrine

Origen

ca. 185–ca. 254. Father martyred. Distinguished Christian scholar and theologian. Headed Alexandrian “catechetical school”. Tension with bishop. Died from mistreatments. Posthumously condemned.

Perpetua and Felicitas

3^rd century Christian martyrs (203).  Felicity slave of Perpetua.  Perpetua nursing mother, Felicity pregnant.  We have record of their deaths.

Polycarp of Smyrna

Aged bishop of Smyrna who was martyred; some students read the account of his martyrdom when we discussed persecution and martyrdom

Tertullian

ca.155 – ca.220.  Born pagan.  Christian lawyer and apologist.  Wrote an apologia, probably to strengthen Christians.  Later in life became a Montanist.

Theodosius

Was emperor at the time of the First Council of Constantinople in 381.  Himself from the West (Spain), he was a strong supporter of Nicene orthodoxy.  Although we did not talk about this in class, he is also famous for some rather significant confrontations that he had with Ambrose of Milan, who refused him communion until he repented of certain actions (including a massacre at Thessalonica that he had ordered).