PSYC 100 - Unit 1

Unit 1 Material for Unit 1 Exam

psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior (1.1)

psychological science

The scientific study of mind and behavior (1.2)

pseudoscience

A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science (1.4)

evidence

The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid (1.4)

empirical

Based on astute (sharp/quick) observation and accurate measurement (1.4)

critical thinking

The purposeful, reasoned, and goal-oriented process of exploring a situation or problem; it is an essential component of psychological literacy (1.5)

W.E.I.R.D samples

Research participants from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic backgrounds (1.6)

evolutionary perspective

The psychological perspective on behavior that seeks to identify how humans’ evolutionary past shapes certain cultural universals that all human beings share, such as the preference for fairness (1.7)

cultural perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand how cultural context affects people’s thoughts and preferences (1.7)

culture

The rules, values, customs, and beliefs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment; culture passes from generation to generation as children learn it from their parents, caregivers, and the larger society (1.7)

cognitive perspective

The psychological perspective that studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity (1.8)

emotional perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand how the human capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behavior, and social relationships (1.8)

unconscious

The part of our mental life that influences our thoughts, feelings, and actions that we cannot directly observe and of which we are unaware (1.8)

biological-neuroscience perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of how humans think, act, and behave (1.9)

developmental perspective

The psychological perspective that studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age

personality perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand aspects of human behavior that are relatively stable over time and situation (1.10)

social psychological perspective

The psychological perspective that studies the ways in which immediate social contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, independent of personality (1.10)

clinical perspective

The psychological perspective that focuses on the causes and treatment of psychological disorders, with the goal of improving human well-being, daily functioning, and social relationships (1.10)

growth mindset

The belief that human personality and behavior can be changed (1.10)

positive psychology

The scientific study of the facts that make people happy, keep them healthy, and help them manage stress; includes the study of important human experiences, such as hope, courage, and creativity (1.11)

metacognition

An awareness and understanding of your own thought processes (1.13)

scientific method

The process of basing one’s confidence in an idea on systematic, direct observations of the world, usually by setting up research studies to test ideas (2.2)

theory-data cycle

The process of the scientific method, in which scientists collect data that can either confirm or disconfirm a theory (2.2)

theory

A set of propositions explaining how and why people act, think, or feel (2.2)

hypothesis

A specific prediction stating what will happen in a study if the theory is correct (2.2)

data

A set of empirical observations that scientists have gathered (2.2)

replication

When a study is conducted more than once on a new sample of participants, and obtains the same basic results (2.2)

journal

A periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline, written for a scholarly audience (2.2)

variable

something of interest that varies from person to person or situation to situation (2.3)

measured variable

A variable whose values are simply recorded (2.3)

manipulated variable

A variable whose values the researcher controls, usually by assigning different participants to different levels of that variable (2.3)

operational definition

The specific way of measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a particular study

descriptive research

A type of study in which researchers measure one variable at a time (2.5)

sample

The group who participated in research, and who belong to the larger group (the population of interest) the researcher is interested in understanding (2.5)

population of interest

The full set of cases the researcher is interested in (2.5)

random sampling

A way of choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias, for example, by dialing random digits on the telephone or pulling names out of a hat (2.5)

naturalistic observation

An observational research method in which psychologists observe the behavior of animals and people in their normal, everyday worlds and environment (2.6)

observational research

A descriptive research method in which psychologists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what people are doing (2.6)

case study

An observational research method in which researchers study one or two individuals in depth, often those who have a unique condition

correlational research

A type of study that measures two (or more) variables in the same sample of people, and then observes the relationship between them (2.7)

scatterplot

A figure used to represent a correlation, in which each dot usually represents a study participant, the x-axis represents one variable, and the y-axis represents the other variable (2.7)

third variable problem

For a given observed relationship between two variables, an additional variable that is associated with both of them, making the additional variable in an alternative explanation for the observed relationship (2.8)

experimental research

A study in which one variable is manipulated, and the other is measured. Experimental research can provide evidence that one variable causes another (2.9)

independent variable

The manipulated variable in an experiment (2.9)

dependent variable

The measured variable in an experiment (2.9)

random assignment

A procedure used in experimental research in which a random method is used to decide which participants will receive each level of the independent variable (2.9)

experimental (or treatment) group

In an experiment, a group or condition which some proposed cause is present

control (or comparison) group

In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is not present (2.9)

placebo condition

In an experiment, a group or condition in which people expect to receive a treatment but are exposed only to an inert version, such as a sugar pill (2.9)

random sampling

A way of choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias, for example, by dialing random digits on the telephone or pulling names out of a hat (2.11)

validity

The appropriateness or accuracy of a conclusion or decision (2.13)

construct validity

The specific assessment of how accurately the operationalizations used in a study capture the variables of interest (2.13)

reliability

The degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered

external validity

The degree to which it is reasonable to generalize from a study’s sample to its population of interest (2.14)

internal validity

The ability of a study to rule out alternative explanations for a relationship between two variables; one of the criteria for supporting a causal claim (2.15)

confound

An alternative explanation for a relationship between two variables; specifically, in an experiment, when two experimental groups accidentally differ on more than just the independent variable, which cause a problem for internal validity (2.15)

descriptive statistics

A graph or computation that describes the characteristics of a batch of scores, such as its distribution, central tendency or variability (2.17)

frequency distribution

A descriptive statistic that takes the form of a bar graph in which the possible scores on a variable are listed on the x-axis and the total number of people who had each score is plotted on the y-axis (2.17)

mean

A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a group of scores (2.17)

median

A measure of central tendency that is the middlemost score; it is obtained by lining up the scores from smallest to largest and identifying the middle score (2.17)

mode

A measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a batch of scores (2.17)

variability

The extent to which the scores in a batch differ from each other (2.17)

standard deviation

A variability statistic that calculates how much, on average, on a batch of scores varies around it mean (2.17)

effect size

A numerical estimate of the strength of the relationship between two variables. It can take the form of a correlation coefficient or, for an experiment, the difference between two groups means divided by the standard deviations of the two groups (2.18)

inferential statistics

A set of procedures used to estimate whether a pattern of results represents a true relationship or difference in the population (2.19)

statistical significance

A process of inference that applies rules of logic and probability to estimate whether the results obtained in a study’s sample are the same in a larger population (2.19)

meta-analysis

A process in which researchers locate all the studies that have tested the same variables and mathematically average them to estimate the effect size of the entire body of studies (2.19)

Institutional Review Board, IRB

A local panel of researchers, teachers, citizens, and others who determine whether a research study lives up to the community’s ethical standards (2.20)

informed consent

An application of the ethical principle of autonomy, in which a researcher explains the procedures of a study, including its risks and potential benefits, to the potential participants, who then decide whether to take part (2.20)

false positive

A statistically significant finding that does not reflect a real effect (2.22)

HARKing (hypothesizing after the results are known)

A questionable research practice in which researchers create an after-the-fact hypothesis about an unexpected research result, making it appear as if they predicted it all along (2.22)

p-hacking

A family of questionable data analysis techniques, such as adding participants after the results are initially analyzed, looking for outliers, or trying new analyses in order to obtain a p value or just under .05, which can lead to nonreplicable results (2.22)

open science

The practice of sharing one’s data, hypotheses, and materials freely so others can collaborate, use, and verify the results (2.22)

preregistration

A researcher’s public statement of a study’s expected outcome before collecting any data (2.22)

neurons

The cellular building blocks of the brain (3.1)

neuroscience

The study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord (3.1)

cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of the brain; supports cognitive skills, complex emotions, and complex mental activity, including your sense of mind and self (3.1)

genes

The basic physical and functional units of heredity; made up of DNA (3.1)

nervous system

A network of neurons running throughout your brain and body (3.2)

nerve

A collection of neurons that carries signals from the body to the brain (3.2)

spinal cord

The major bundle of nerves, encased in your spine, that connects your body and your brain (3.2)

sensory neuron

A neuron that carries information from the outside world and within the body to the brain (3.2)

motor neuron

A neuron that sends signals to make the body take action (3.2)

interneuron

A neuron that connects neurons and interprets, stores, and retrieves information about the world, allowing you to make informed decisions before you act (3.2)

central nervous system (CNS)

The system composed of the brain and spinal cord; information from your body travels to the brain by way of the nerves of your spinal cord (3.3)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The system composed of the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord; connects the parts of the body to the brain (3.3)

sympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that acts on blood vessels, organs, and glands in ways that prepare the body for action, especially in life-threatening situations (3.3)

parasympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to a resting state by counteracting the actions of the sympathetic system (3.3)

hormones

The blood-borne chemicals that travel through the circulatory system enabling the brain to regulate the body’s activities (3.4)

endocrine system

A network of glands that produces and releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the body’s activities (3.4)

adrenal glands

The endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys; they produce a variety of hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol, that are central to the stress response (3.4)

pituitary gland

The master endocrine gland, located at the base of the brain, that in addition to producing its own hormones regulates hormone production in other glands (3.4)

occipital lobe

A lobe that runs along the back portion of the head; contains the primary visual cortex and is largely devoted to vision (3.5)

temporal lobe

A lobe that runs alongside the ears; contains the primary auditory cortex and is responsible for the ability to hear and understand language (3.5)

parietal lobe

A lobe that runs alongside the head above and behind the ears; contains the primary somatosensory cortex, supporting a map of the body’s skin surface and the sense of touch (3.5)

frontal lobe

A lobe located in the front of the head, contains the primary motor cortex and a map of the body’s muscles, essential for movement and planning (3.5)

insular lobe

The cortex that is insulated by the overlying cortex; supports the sense of taste and allows perception of the internal organs (3.5)

neocortex

The evolutionary newest cerebral cortex that is the largest part of the human brain; supports complex functions, including language, thought, problem solving, and imagination (3.5)

primary sensory areas

The first regions of the cerebral cortex to receive signals from a sensory organ via its sensory nerve (3.5)

primary motor cortex

The cortex that is responsible for voluntary movements (3.5)