AP Psych Unit 1 - Biological Perspectives

AP Psych bio (Excluding sleep and sensations since I was too lazy to add those, but I will soon)

Neuron

The building blocks of the nervous system

SOMA/Cell Body

The body of the cell

Encompasses the nucleus

Dendrites

Branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses towards the cell body

Axon

The part of a neuron in which messages travel through

Myelin Sheath

A fatty substance found in some neurons which protects and insulates the axon. Speeds up the rate at which messages travel

Axon Terminal

Located at the end of the neuron. Terminal buttons protrude from it to send on messages

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon (In more scientific terms, a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane)

Reuptake

A neurotransmitter’s re-absorption by the sending neuron

Refractory Period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

All-or-None Response

A neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing- there is no in between

Synaptic Gap/Synapse

The space between dendrites and terminal buttons. Neurotransmitters jump across this gap

Sensory Neurons/Afferent Neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the senses to the brain for processing

Motor Neurons/Efferent Neurons

Neurons that carry messages from the brain to the body for reaction to stimuli

Interneurons

Neurons located in the brain and spinal cord. Communicate between sensory input and motor output by taking messages and sending them elsewhere

Central Nervous System (CNS)

One of the two main division of the nervous system. Consists of the brain and spinal cord (all of the nerves housed within bone) and transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain

Peripheral Nervous System

One of the two main divisions of the nervous system. Consists of the nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord (all of the nerves not encased in bone). Can be broken down further into the Autonomic and Somatic Nervous Systems

Somatic Nervous System

Also called the skeletal nervous system. It is a part of the PNS and controls voluntary muscle movements

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the PNS that controls involuntary, automatic functions of the body such as our heart, lungs, and internal organs. This nervous system can be further broken down into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the ANS that mobilizes our body to respond to stress. It carries messages to the control systems that direct our body’s response to stress (fight-or-flight). When stress is perceived it accelerates some functions (HR, BP, breathing) but slows others (digestion)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The division of the ANS that calms the body after a perceived danger. It carries messages to the stress response system that cause many body activities to slow down and return the body to homeostasis (rest-and-digest)

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger fired by neurons

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmitter linked to muscle movement, learning, and memory (Excitatory)

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter linked with learning, emotion, pleasure & reward, motor movement, and alertness (Excitatory)

Seratonin

Neurotransmitter linked with mood stabilization, hunger, sleep, and arousal (Inhibitory)

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter linked with alertness and arousal (Excitatory)

GABA

Neurotransmitter linked with sleepiness (Inhibitory)

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter linked with memory and all cognitive functions (Excitatory)

Endorphines

Neurotransmitter linked with being a natural pain killer (Inhibitory)

Substance P

Neurotransmitter linked with pain perception and immune response (Excitatory)

Agonist

A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

Inhibits or blocks a response

Depressants

Type of drugs that slow/inhibit CNS functions

Opiates/Opioids

Type of drugs that are agonists for endorphins

Stimulants

Type of drugs that activate the sympathetic nervous system

Hallucinogens/Psychedelics

Type of drugs that cause sensory/visual distortions, alter mood, and affect thinking

Hindbrain

The oldest part of the brain

Takes care of basic human survival functions

Medulla

Part of the hindbrain

Base of the brain stem that controls basic autonomic functions like heart rate, breathing, etc.

Pons

Part of the hindbrain

Helps coordinate movement on each side of the body

Plays a role in sleep function

Reticular Formation/Reticular Activating System

Part of the hindbrain

A bundle of nerves that is involved in alertness/arousal

Cerebellum

Part of the hindbrain

Involved in processing sensory input, balance, voluntary movement, and implicit memory

Limbic System/Midbrain

The border between the older and newer parts of the brain

In charge of emotions and drives

Hypothalamus

Part of the midbrain/limbic system

“Head Coach” of the limbic system that maintains homeostasis

Also involved in initiating fight or flight, feeding (homeostasis), and fornication

Thalamus

Part of the midbrain/limbic system

Receives and reroutes information from sensory input

Amygdala

Part of the midbrain/limbic system

Linked to emotion

Controls things like aggression, anger, and afraid (fear)

Hippocampus

Part of the midbrain/limbic system

Linked with memory: converting short-term to long-term, processing and retrieving declaratory memories, spatial relationship memories

Cerebral Cortex/Forebrain

The newest part of the brain

Frontal Lobe

Part of the forebrain

Involved in speaking, muscle movement, judgement

Parietal Lobe

Part of the forebrain

Receives sensory input for touch/pain/pressure and body position

Temporal Lobe

Part of the forebrain

Primary auditory cortex

Occipital Lobe

Part of the forebrain

Primary visual cortex

Corpus Callosum

Band of neural fibers that connects both brain hemispheres and carries messages between them

Motor Cortex

An area at the back of the frontal lobe which controls voluntary movements

Somatosensory Cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensation

Auditory Cortex

Cortex that processes sounds

Located in the temporal lobe

Visal Cortex

Cortex that processes things you see

Located in the occipital lobe

Association Areas

Parts of the cerebral cortex that are involved in complex mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Prefrontal Cortex

An association area that enables judgements

Broca’s area

One of two language association areas

Connected to speaking abilities

Located in the frontal lobe

Wernicke’s Area

One of two language association areas

Connected to understanding language

Located in temporal lobe

Genetic Predisposition

The increased chance of developing a specific trait or condition due to our genetic code

Neurons

Individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other/send messages

Resting Potential

A neuron’s resting state where it has an overall slightly negative charge

Threshold

The critical level of electrical stimulation or depolarization that a neuron must reach in order to initiate an action potential. This is essentially the point where a neuron "fires" and transmits an electrical signal

Depolarization

Another name for the process of neuron firing. Named so because the resting potential of the cell (negatively charged) becomes depolarized when positive ions rush in

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that excite the next cell into firing

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that inhibit the next cell from firing

Alzheimer’s Disease

A disease that is linked with a lack of Acetylcholine (ACh)

Myasthenia gravis

A condition that causes muscle weakness that causes the body to attack ACh receptors

Reflex Arcs

Reflexes that do not travel all the way to the brain (normally just to the spinal cord) before reactions occur.

E.g. when the spot right under your knee is hit, this sensory info is processed by the spine, which tells your leg to move. Then theinfo reaches your brain, and you realize your leg has moved

Endocrine System

A system of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our bodies. The complex system is controlled by the hypothalamus

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to affect distant organs and tissues, regulating bodily functions like growth, metabolism, and stress response

Adrenaline

A hormone that is activated during the fight-or-flight response in stressful situations that speeds up bodily processes

Leptin

A hormone involved in weight regulation. It suppresses hunger (may make food appear as less appetizing)

Ghrelin

A hormone involved in motivating eating/increasing hunger (may make food appear as more appetizing)

Melatonin

A hormone that triggers sleep and wakefulness responses in the brain

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in promoting good feelings such as trust and bonding

Lesioning

Removing or destroying part of the brain. Not used in experiments for obvious reasons, just as surgery for serious conditions (E.g. removing a brain tumor). When lesioning occurs, researchers are able to monitor any behavior changes afterwards as a way to infer the function of that part of the brain

A famous example is the frontal lobotomy