Hearing and Color Vision: Hair Cells, Cochlear Implants, and Color Perception

What are the effects of damage to inner hair cells?

Loss of sensitivity

What are the effects of damage to outer hair cells?

Loss of sensitivity and loss of sharp frequency tuning (cochlear amplification)

What is presbycusis?

Hearing loss caused by hair cell damage from cumulative effects over time, including noise exposure and age-related degeneration, with the greatest loss at high frequencies.

What causes noise-induced hearing loss?

Loud noises causing degeneration of structures involved in hearing, including the organ of Corti, hair cells, and auditory nerve fibers.

What factors influence noise-induced hearing loss?

Intensity and duration of noise exposure, which can come from occupational or leisure activities.

How do cochlear implants work?

They use electrodes inserted into the cochlea to create hearing by electronically stimulating the auditory nerve fibers.

What are the main components of a cochlear implant?

Microphone, sound processor, transmitter, and array of electrodes.

What is the format of Exam 3?

37 multiple choice questions (including 1 extra credit) and 2 short answer questions.

What should you do before starting the Kahoot game?

Randomize the order of the questions and answers in the settings.

What is the recommended primary study method?

Use the study guide instead of Kahoot as the primary study method.

What types of hearing loss should you know for the exam?

Types of hearing loss and cochlear implants.

What are the functions of color vision?

Color serves as a signal, aids with perceptual organization, and helps with object identification.

What is the relationship between perceived color and wavelength?

Perceived color is most closely associated with the wavelength of the light that an object reflects.

What are chromatic colors?

Chromatic colors (hues) are those where some wavelengths are reflected more than others.

What are achromatic colors?

Achromatic colors reflect all wavelengths equally.

How is the color of a transparent object determined?

The color of a transparent object is determined by the wavelength it transmits.

What is selective transmission?

Selective transmission occurs when some wavelengths are transmitted more than others.

What is subtractive color mixing?

Subtractive color mixing occurs when mixing pigments, resulting in the absorption of certain wavelengths.

What is additive color mixing?

Additive color mixing occurs when mixing lights, resulting in the combination of all reflected wavelengths.

What are spectral colors?

Spectral colors are those found in the visible light spectrum; nonspectral colors are not.

What three attributes describe colors?

Colors can be described by hue, saturation, and value.

What is hue?

Hue is the experience of chromatic color.

What is saturation?

Saturation refers to the amount of whiteness in a color.

What is value in terms of color?

Value refers to the light-to-dark dimension of a color.

What does the trichromatic theory of color vision propose?

It proposes that color vision depends on the ratio of activity in three receptor mechanisms with different spectral sensitivities.

What are the three types of cone pigments identified in the trichromatic theory?

The three types are short-wavelength pigment (S), medium-wavelength pigment (M), and long-wavelength pigment (L).

What evidence supports the trichromatic theory?

Evidence comes from color-matching experiments that show any wavelength can be matched by adjusting the intensity of three wavelengths.

What is the mean score for the exam mentioned?

The mean score is 83.

What is the median score for the exam mentioned?

The median score is 87.5.

What is the last day to use a late pass for Written Assignment 2?

The last day to use a late pass is Fri 10/10.

What does the trichromatic theory of color vision state?

It states that color vision depends on the ratio of activity in three receptor mechanisms, each with different spectral sensitivities.

What are the three types of cone pigments identified by the trichromatic theory?

Short-wavelength (S), Medium-wavelength (M), and Long-wavelength (L) pigments.

Why are three receptor mechanisms necessary for color perception?

They allow for distinguishing between wavelengths independent of light intensity by using ratio information.

What is color deficiency?

The partial loss of color perception.

What is monochromatism?

A condition where there are no functioning cones or just one type of cone pigment, leading to seeing in shades of lightness.

What is dichromatism?

A condition where one type of cone pigment is missing, resulting in a lesser range of colors than trichromats.

What are the three major types of dichromatism?

Protanopia, Deuteranopia, and Tritanopia.

What occurs in protanopia?

The long-wavelength pigment is missing, affecting color perception, particularly in men (1 in 100) and women (1 in 5,000).

What occurs in deuteranopia?

The medium-wavelength pigment is missing, affecting color perception, particularly in men (1 in 100) and women (1 in 10,000).

What occurs in tritanopia?

The short-wavelength pigment is missing, affecting color perception, particularly in men (1 in 50,000) and women (1 in 100,000).

What is anomalous trichromatism?

A condition where there are three cone types, but their spectral sensitivities are more overlapping.

What is the purpose of color-matching experiments?

To demonstrate that any wavelength can be matched by adjusting the intensity of three wavelengths.

What are Ishihara plates used for?

To test color perception and identify color deficiencies.

What is the significance of the neutral point in color vision?

It is the point at which color perception shifts, depending on the missing pigment in color deficiency conditions.

What is the expected color when overlapping a green spotlight and a red spotlight on a white surface?

Yellow.

What is the relationship between the number of pigments and color vision in humans and animals?

Humans and animals can be classified based on the number of pigments they have: monochromats (1), dichromats (2), and trichromats (3).

What is the next topic to be covered after trichromatic theory?

Opponent-process theory, color perception in the brain, and color & lightness constancy.

What does the opponent-process theory of color vision propose?

It states that our perception of color is determined by the activity of three opponent mechanisms: blue-yellow, red-green, and black-white.

Who proposed the opponent-process theory?

Ewald Hering

What is the role of opponent neurons in color perception?

Opponent neurons respond with an excitatory response to light from one part of the spectrum and with an inhibitory response to light from another part.

What is color constancy?

It is the perception of colors of objects as being relatively constant under changing illumination.

What is chromatic adaptation?

It occurs when exposure to light in a specific part of the spectrum decreases sensitivity to light from that part.

What is memory color in the context of color perception?

It refers to the effect of prior knowledge on the perception of typical colors of objects, which may enhance or alter the perceived color.

What is lightness constancy?

It is the constancy of our perception of an object's lightness under different intensities of illumination.

What evidence supports the opponent-process theory?

Behavioral evidence includes negative afterimages, color deficiency, and phenomenological evidence such as Hering's primary colors.

What brain area is specialized for color perception?

The V4 area of the brain.

What condition is characterized by a loss of color perception due to brain damage?

Cerebral achromatopsia.

How does color constancy function better?

It works better with more context and less effectively when an object is seen in isolation.

What determines the perception of lightness?

The perception of lightness is determined by the percent of light reflected from an object.

What is the relationship between trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory?

They work in conjunction to explain color perception, with physiological activity at different places in the visual system.

What is the significance of negative afterimages in color perception?

Negative afterimages occur when prolonged viewing of a stimulus causes an afterimage that appears in opponent colors.

What factors influence the amount of light reaching the eye?

Illumination and reflectance.

What is the construction of color in the nervous system?

Color is a construction of the nervous system; wavelengths themselves are not colored, but the brain interprets them as such.

What are the three mechanisms in the opponent-process theory?

Blue-yellow mechanism, red-green mechanism, and black-white mechanism (brightness).

What is the effect of illumination on color perception?

The light reflected off an object involves interaction between the illumination and the reflection properties of the object.

What is the role of bipolar cells in color perception?

Bipolar cells send signals to opponent neurons in the brain, contributing to color perception.

What is the cue approach to depth perception?

It focuses on identifying information in the retina that correlates with depth, allowing us to perceive a 3D image from a 2D retinal image.

What are oculomotor cues?

Cues based on our ability to sense the position of our eyes and the tension in our eye muscles, including convergence and accommodation.

What is convergence in depth perception?

The inward movement of the eyes as they focus on a nearby object.

What is accommodation in depth perception?

The change in lens shape to focus on objects at different distances.

What are monocular depth cues?

Cues that can work with only one eye, including accommodation, pictorial cues, and motion-produced cues.

What is occlusion as a pictorial cue?

When one object hides or partially hides another object, causing the hidden object to be perceived as farther away.

How does relative height function as a pictorial cue?

Objects with bases below the horizon appear farther away when higher in the field of view, and vice versa for objects above the horizon.

What is relative size in depth perception?

When two objects are of equal size, the one that is farther away will take up less of the field of view.

What is perspective convergence?

The perception that parallel lines converge as distance increases.

How does familiar size contribute to depth perception?

Judgment of distance is based on knowledge of the sizes of objects.

What is atmospheric perspective?

Objects that are farther away appear blurrier and bluer due to looking through more air and particles.

What is texture gradient?

Elements in a visual pattern appear smaller and more closely packed as distance from the observer increases.

How do shadows serve as a pictorial cue?

Decreases in light intensity caused by the blockage of light provide information regarding the location of objects.

What are the two main types of depth cues discussed?

Oculomotor cues and monocular depth cues.

What is the significance of the cue approach to depth perception?

It helps in understanding how we interpret depth from visual information.

What is the focus of the next chapter mentioned?

Motion-produced monocular cues and binocular cues.

Occlusion

An object that is hidden or partially hidden by another appears to be farther away.

Relative height

Objects closer to the horizon appear to be farther away.

Relative size

When two objects are of equal size, the one that is farther away will take up less of the field of view.

Perspective convergence

Parallel lines converge as distance increases.

Familiar size

Judgment of distance is based on the knowledge of the sizes of objects.

Atmospheric perspective

Objects that are farther away look blurrier and bluer.

Texture gradient

Elements appear smaller and more closely packed as distance increases.

Shadows

Decreases in light intensity provide info regarding the location of objects.

Monocular depth cues

Cues that can work with only one eye.

Accommodation

The process of adjusting the eye's lens to focus on objects at different distances.

Motion parallax

The phenomenon that as we move, nearby objects appear to move past us more rapidly than distant objects.

Accretion

When a farther object is uncovered by a nearer object due to motion of the observer.

Deletion

When a farther object is covered by a nearer object due to motion of the observer.

Binocular depth cues

Depth cues that require two eyes.

Stereoscopic depth perception

Two-eyed depth perception involving mechanisms that take into account differences in the images formed on the left and right eyes.

Strabismus

A misalignment of the eyes that can lead to vision dominated by one eye.

Binocular disparity

The difference in the images on the left and right retinas.

Corresponding retinal points

Points on the retina that overlap if the eyes are superimposed on each other.