criminology

What is criminology?

The study of crime, those who commit crime, and the criminal justice and penal systems.

What is a legalistic approach to crime?

It defines crime based on what the law states; breaking the law constitutes a crime, which is not necessarily immoral.

What are the key elements of a crime?

A guilty act (actus reus), a guilty mind (mens rea), absence of lawful defense, and having legal capacity.

How does society influence the definition of crime?

Crime is socially and politically constructed; different societies label different acts as crimes.

What does it mean that crime has no ontological reality?

There is nothing inherent in an act that makes it a crime; it is based on societal labels.

How do human rights relate to crime?

Human rights violations can be considered crimes, particularly in transnational contexts.

What role does religion play in defining crime?

Crime can be defined by religious beliefs, but interpretations vary widely among and within religions.

What are the two main methods for measuring crime?

1. Data collected by law enforcement agencies on reported crimes. 2. Surveys that gather information from a representative sample about their crime experiences.

What are the strengths of police data in measuring crime?

It provides insights into trends over time and areas, includes detailed incident information, and offers voluminous data.

What are the limitations of police data?

Not all crime is detected or reported, jurisdictional differences exist, and not all reported crime is recorded.

What insights do victimization surveys provide?

They reveal changes in reporting behavior, prevalence and incidence of victimization, and demographic variables associated with victimization.

What are the limitations of victimization surveys?

Variations in methodology can affect results, influenced by question order, interview style, and interviewer characteristics.

How do new legislations affect crime definitions?

New laws, such as the Race Relations Acts, create new offenses like racial discrimination and harassment.

What are broad purposes for calculating crime rates?

To measure the moral health and quality of life of regions, evaluate social control effectiveness, and estimate victimization risk.

Why is it important to compare crime statistics?

To understand the context of the numbers, including time, jurisdiction, and demographic factors.

What are the characteristics of media construction of crime stories?

Immediacy, dramatization, personalization, simplification, titillation, conventionalism, structured access, and novelty.

What is newsworthiness in the context of crime reporting?

It refers to the criteria that make a crime story significant enough to be reported in the media.

How does media content analysis relate to crime?

It is often portrayed as objective but can reflect biases and ideologies in the portrayal of crime.

What are the key elements/stages of moral panic?

1. Something or someone is defined as a threat to values or interests. 2. The threat is depicted in an easily recognizable form by the media. 3. There is a rapid build-up of public concern. 4. There is a response from authorities or opinion-makers. 5. The panic recedes or results in social changes.

What are the features of a moral panic?

1. Concern: Some reported conduct or event sparks anxiety. 2. Hostility: The perpetrators are portrayed as folk devils. 3. Consensus: The negative reaction is broad and unified. 4. Disproportionality: The extent of the conduct or threat is exaggerated. 5. Volatility: Media reporting and associated panic emerge suddenly but can dissipate quickly.

What does cultivation theory suggest about crime?

It suggests that the widespread fear of crime is fueled partly by heavy exposure to the portrayal of violence on prime-time television.

What do criminological theories help us understand?

1. Causes of crime to reduce them. 2. The criminal justice system to improve it. 3. Criminals and their motivations. 4. Victims.

What are some historical examples of explanations for crime?

1. Primitive people and natural disasters carrying out rituals. 2. Blood feuds. 3. Trial by battle. 4. Trial by ordeal.

What is compurgation in the context of historical crime theories?

A jury system used in historical contexts to determine guilt or innocence.

What modern-day example is mentioned in relation to penitentiaries?

The Quakers in Philadelphia.

How do scientific theories relate to criminology?

Scientific theories offer insights into the connections between observable phenomena in the physical world and can be falsified or made more credible through research.

What is causation in the context of criminological theories?

All scientific theories in criminology propose causal relationships.

What does correlation mean in criminology?

Systematic variation between things, which can be positive or negative.

What is the theoretical rationale in criminology?

A coherent explanation of the relationships between variables.

What is the significance of time sequence in criminological theories?

The cause must come before the effect.

What does absence of spuriousness mean in criminological research?

It means that the observed relationship between variables is not due to a third variable influencing both.

What is labelling theory in criminology?

Labelling someone a criminal can influence their self-identity and behavior, leading to more criminal behavior due to societal rejection of opportunities.

What are primary and secondary deviance in labelling theory?

Primary deviance refers to initial acts of rule-breaking, while secondary deviance occurs when a person internalizes the label of 'criminal' and continues to engage in deviant behavior.

What is social control theory?

It posits that societal controls prevent most people from committing crimes, as they have free will.

What are the four key elements of social bonds in social control theory?

1. Attachment: Emotional connections discourage deviance. 2. Commitment: Investment in conventional goals makes crime risky. 3. Involvement: Participation in structured activities reduces deviance. 4. Belief: Acceptance of societal norms discourages rule-breaking.

What is a common critique of Hirschi's social control theory?

That attachments may contribute to criminal behavior if parents or peers are deviant, although Hirschi specifically refers to prosocial attachments.

What does Routine Activities Theory (RAT) explain?

RAT explains crime in terms of the routine activities of individuals, emphasizing the importance of opportunity in the commission of crimes.

What are the three elements necessary for crime to occur according to Routine Activities Theory (RAT)?

1. A potential offender with the capacity to commit a crime. 2. A suitable target or victim. 3. The absence of capable guardians.

What is a criticism of Routine Activities Theory (RAT)?

It assumes offenders are rational, tends to blame the victim, does not explain some crimes (e.g. violent crime), and fails to discuss why some individuals are more motivated to offend than others.

What role does the frontal lobe play in criminal behavior according to biological theories?

The frontal lobe helps us make good decisions.

What percentage of body weight does the brain account for, and what percentage of glucose metabolism does it use?

The brain accounts for two percent of body weight and uses twenty percent of glucose metabolism.

What is Rational Choice Theory in criminology?

Offenders weigh the costs and benefits and make a choice to commit a crime or not.

What are some criticisms of Rational Choice Theory?

Critics argue it overlooks free will and rational choice, and that some individuals may have a biological predisposition to engage in criminal behavior.

What is Classical Theory in criminology?

It is the basis of our criminal justice system, an amalgam of different approaches to managing criminal behavior, resting on the assumption that humans are rational actors.

What principle did classical criminologists argue should be used to control crime?

Hedonistic principles based on justice.

What is the principle of retribution in the context of classical criminology?

Anyone who commits a crime should be punished, and punishment should be proportional to the crime.

What does the utilitarian principle state regarding punishment?

Social utility is a necessary and sufficient condition for punishment, which should act to prevent crime.

What are the two main critiques of classical criminology?

1. Inequality characterizes society more than equality, affecting the equality of choice. 2. People's choices are partly determined.

What is contemporary classicism in criminology?

It refers to the new right perspective influenced by the rise of right-wing politics, focusing on rational choice and routine activities.

What problems are associated with the new right approach to crime prevention?

Increasing penalties have limited effects, and research shows small or no effect on crime rates, with high costs associated with enforcement.

What is the focus of Rational Choice Theory in crime prevention?

It views crime from an economic perspective, emphasizing that people commit crimes when the benefits outweigh the disadvantages.

What does Routine Activities Theory suggest about the conditions for crime to occur?

Crime occurs when there is a convergence of likely offenders, suitable targets, and an absence of capable guardians.

How does Routine Activities Theory account for modern crime opportunities?

It considers the structure of communities, such as dormitory suburbs and shopping centers.

What is the significance of hedonism in Rational Choice Theory?

It suggests that crime is a rational, opportunistic decision based on the pursuit of pleasure or benefit.

What is the relationship between crime and guardianship in Routine Activities Theory?

The absence of capable guardians increases the likelihood of crime occurring.

How does classical criminology view the nature of offending?

It views offending as a matter of choice.

What did Beccaria try to combine in his views on punishment?

He attempted to combine the principles of retribution and utilitarianism.

What is the impact of increasing punishments on crime reporting and behavior?

Increasing punishments may reduce reporting or increase the severity of behavior, potentially leading to more serious outcomes.

What is the role of opportunity in Routine Activities Theory?

It emphasizes that crime is influenced by the availability of opportunities for offending.

What is the critique regarding the effectiveness of deterrent effects in crime prevention?

Research indicates that changes in police practices, increased incarceration, and the death penalty show small increases or decreases in crime rates.

What is the focus of opportunity theories in criminology?

Opportunity theories account for opportunity and modernization, emphasizing prevention while also addressing deterrence and restitution.

What is a major criticism of opportunity theories?

They accept the status quo and primarily focus on situational crime prevention.

What is positivism in the context of criminology?

Positivism focuses on scientific explanations of crime and the social context surrounding it.

What are the three perspectives on offenders according to positivism?

1. Principle of differentiation: inherent differences between offenders and non-offenders. 2. Pathology: understanding the link between conditions and criminal behavior. 3. Determinism: differences determined by biological and/or social processes.

What is the significance of impulse control in criminal behavior?

Poor impulse control is a strong predictor of criminal behavior and is linked to dysfunctional family environments.

What are the strengths of individual positivism?

1. Scientific approach using empirical evidence. 2. Focus on individual differences in response to social pressures. 3. Emphasis on treatment and rehabilitation of offenders.

What are the weaknesses of individual positivism?

1. It can be deterministic, suggesting individuals lack control over their actions. 2. Neglects social and environmental factors influencing criminal behavior. 3. Raises ethical concerns regarding stigmatization based on biological or psychological traits.

What does labelling theory suggest about the process of becoming a criminal?

It involves tagging, defining, and identifying individuals, which can lead them to adopt the traits associated with the label.

What is primary deviance?

Primary deviance consists of deviant acts that occur before an individual is publicly labelled, without significant consequences or changes in self-perception.

What is secondary deviance?

Secondary deviance refers to deviant behavior that arises as a result of being labelled as a deviant by society.

How does emotional regulation relate to criminal behavior?

Emotional regulation, particularly anger control, is important for functioning in society and is often linked to high rates of impulsivity.

What role does the environment play in individual positivism?

Individual positivism often neglects the influence of social and environmental factors, such as poverty and education, on criminal behavior.

What is the argument of determinism in criminology?

Determinism argues that criminal behavior is determined by biological and/or social processes, suggesting societal factors are the root cause of offending.

What is the significance of treatment interventions in criminology?

Treatment interventions target characteristics like poor impulse control to reduce the likelihood of future criminal behavior.

How do opportunity theorists respond to criticisms about accepting the status quo?

They argue that their goal is to limit harm in the community rather than challenge the existing social order.

What is the relationship between social context and positivism?

Positivism emphasizes understanding crime within its social context, using scientific methods to analyze the factors involved.

What is the impact of labelling on self-perception?

Labelling can lead individuals to internalize the label, potentially resulting in a change in their self-identity and behavior.

What does the principle of differentiation imply about offenders?

It implies that there are inherent differences between offenders and non-offenders that need to be understood.

What is the role of empirical evidence in individual positivism?

Empirical evidence provides objective and reliable results, supporting the scientific approach to understanding crime.

What ethical concerns arise from individual positivism?

Ethical concerns include the potential for stigmatization and discrimination against individuals based on biological or psychological traits.

What is the relationship between impulse control and criminal behavior?

Poor impulse control is linked to higher rates of criminal behavior and is a significant factor in understanding offending.

How does individual positivism view rehabilitation?

Individual positivism supports rehabilitation by addressing underlying biological or psychological conditions to reduce criminal behavior.

What is the significance of social pressures in understanding criminal behavior?

Social pressures can influence individuals differently, highlighting the importance of individual differences in responses to these pressures.

What is the process that follows the initial act of defiance in labelling theory?

It involves adopting a deviant identity and behavior consistent with that label, leading to the development of secondary deviance.

What are the stages of secondary deviance according to labelling theory?

1. Primary deviation 2. Social penalties 3. Further primary deviation 4. Stronger social penalties and rejections 5. Further deviation with hostilities and resentment 6. Crisis in tolerance quotient leading to community stigmatization 7. Strengthening of deviant conduct in reaction to stigmatization 8. Acceptance of deviant status and adjustment based on the associated role.

What are the two consequences of labelling theory?

1. It sets people on a criminal career path due to social expectations. 2. It influences the person's self-concept as one who is deviant.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of deviance?

It is a false definition of a situation that evokes new behavior, making the originally false conception come true.

What does deviancy amplification refer to?

It points to how the transmission of information about deviance may lead to distortion and exaggeration, resulting in adaptive behavioral reactions.

What is a folk devil?

A person or group portrayed as deviant and a threat to societal values, often blamed for social problems or crimes.

What is a moral panic?

A mass movement that intensifies the pursuit of folk devils.

What is shaming in the context of deviance?

Expressions of disapproval intended to invoke remorse in the person being shamed and/or condemnation by others.

What is disintegrative shaming?

A form of shaming that stigmatizes and excludes the person being shamed, labeling the actor as deviant.

What is reintegrative shaming?

A process where social disapproval is followed by efforts to reintegrate the offender into the community through forgiveness or ceremonies.

What is defiance in relation to criminal sanctions?

The net increase in future offending caused by a proud, shameless reaction to the administration of a criminal sanction.

Under what conditions does defiance occur?

1. The offender defines the sanction as unfair. 2. The offender is poorly bonded to the sanctioning agent. 3. The sanction is seen as stigmatizing the person, not the act. 4. The offender denies the suffering caused by the sanction.

What is a critique of labelling theory regarding primary deviance?

It does not explain the causes of primary deviance or why people engage in lawbreaking behavior initially.

What does penology examine?

The structures and systems of punishment and their implications for social systems.

What are utilitarian or consequentialist approaches to crime?

They suggest crime can be prevented or reduced through deterrence, rehabilitation, or incapacitation.

What is general deterrence?

Imposing punishment on someone to show others that such behavior is unacceptable.

What is individual deterrence?

Aims to discourage a particular offender from re-offending.