Life Processes Exam 2

What products are made in glycolysis

2 ATP

2 NAD+

What product results from the citric acid cycle

1 ATP

1 FADH2

3 NADH

What products are produced from the electron transport chain

25-38 ATP

H2O

What steps in cellular respiration require oxygen to be present

Citric Acid Cycle

Electron Transport Chain

What steps of cellular respiration occur inside the mitochondria

Citric acid cycle and ETC

What step in cellular respiration produces the most ATP

ETC

If oxygen isn’t present then what process do humans use to make ATP

Glycolysis and fermentation

Four major tissue types of the body

Connective Tissue

Muscular Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

Connective Tissue

Binds and supports body parts

Is diverse in structure and function

All have specialized cells, ground substance, and protein fibers

Connective Tissue Fibers

Collagen Fibers

Reticular Fibers

Elastic Fibers

Collagen fibers

Have collagen are slightly flexible but strong

Reticular Fiber

Thin collagen fiber

Delicate support network

Elastic fiber

Has elastin and is extremely stretchy

Is found in the earlobe

Three types of connective tissue

Fluid

Supportive

Fibrous

Fluid Connective Tissue

Blood

Lymph

Blood

In blood vessels

Transports nutrients and oxygen

Removes carbon dioxide and wastes

Helps distribute heat, iron, fluid, and pH

Erythrocytes

Red Blood Cells

Have no nucleus

Transport O2

Leukocytes

White blood cells

Part of immune system

Phagocytosis

Antibodies

Attack infected cells

Thrombocytes

Platelets

Fragments of giant cells found only in bone marrow

Form a plug that seals rip in RBC

Lymph

Contained in lymphatic vessels

Has WBC

Absorbs excess fluid and dissolved solutes

Transports lymph

Absorbs fat

Lymph nodes And they enlarge when infected

Is cleansed when passed through lymph nodes

Supportive Connective Tissue

Bone

Cartilage

Bone

Solid and rigid matrix

Matrix deposited by osteoblasts

Matrix is shaped by osteoclasts

Types of Bone

Spongy and Compact

Compact Bone

Made of osteons

Surrounded by ring of hard matrix

Blood vessels and nerve fibers run through central canal of each osteon

Shaft of long bones

Spongy Bone

Open lattice of irregular bars, plates, and spaces

Solid portion follows stress lines

Large vessels and bone marrow is housed here

Bottom of long bones

Handles more force

Lighter

Cartilage

Flexible connective tissue that lacks blood supply so is slow to heal

Types of Cartilage

Hyaline

Elastic

Fibrocartilage

Hyaline Cartilage

Most common

Nose, end of long bones, ribs

Support rings in respiratory passage

Makes up fetal skeleton

Elastic Cartilage

Elastin fiber and flexible

Outer ear

Fibrocartilage

Strong collagen fiber

Structures need to withstand pressure

Back of knees and vertebrae disk

Fibrous Connective Tissue

Loose and Dense

Loose Fibrous Connective Tissue

Supports epithelium

Allows organs to expand

Protective covering of organs

Adipose tissue

Adipose Tissue

Made of adipocytes

Enlarge to store fat

Holds liquid fat for energy storage

Insulation

Body temp

Beneath skin

Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue

Collagen fibers packed together

Strong flexible connections

Tendon

Ligaments

Tendón

Muscle and bone

Ligament

Bone to bone

Muscular Tissue

Muscle fibers that contract

Three types of muscular tissues

Skeletal

Smooth

Cardiac

Skeletal

Attatched tendons to bones

Voluntary

Movement

Multinucleated

Striations

Smooth

Moves substance into lumen of body

Involuntary

One nucleus

No striations

Spindle shaped

In viscera, intestine and bladder

Cardiac Muscle

Walls of the heart

Striations

Single nucleus

Branched

Look fused together

Mostly involuntary

Nervous Tissue

Central component of nervous system

Types of nervous tissue

Neurons and neuroglia

Neurons

Control nerve impulses

Dendrite, axon, cell body

Dendrite

Receives signals

Axon

Conducts nerve impulses

Sends the signals

Neuroglia

Specialized cells that support and nourish neurons

9:1 ration

Take up most of brain volume

Epithelial Tissue

Tightly packed cells form a continuous layer

Covers surface and lines body cavities

Protective

Secretion

Absorption

Excretion

Filtration

Exposed on one side and the other is connected to basement membrane

Simple Sqquamos

Flat cell

Exchange of substance

Blood vessels walls

Lining of lung

Simple Cubodial

Cube cells

In glands

Salivary glands, thyroid, pancreas, ovaries, kidney

Simple columnar

Pillars

Digestive tract and uterine tubes

Facilitate selective uptake of material into cells

Psuedostratified Columnar

Not true layers

Lines trachea

Can be glandular (secretion)

Stratified

Layer of cells

Outer layer of skin

Nose

Mouth

Esophagus

Anal canal

Vagina

Organ

Group of tissues performing common function

Organ System

Group of organs performing common function

Integumentary System

Skin

Protection

Temp

Vitamin D

Sensory input

Cardiovascular System

Heart

Transport nutrients and wastes

Temp, fluid, and pH homeostasis

Lymphatic and Immune System

Lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels

Defends against infection

Fluid homeostasis

Absorption and transport of fats

Digestive System

Mouth, Esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, salivary glands, gall bladder, pancreas

Ingestion, digestion, and food processing

Absorb nutrients

Eliminates waste

Fluid homeostasis

Respiratory System

Lung

Exchange of gases

PH homeostasis

Urinary System

Kidney and Bladder

Excrete metabolic wastes

PH and fluid homeostasis

Skeletal System

Bones

Support and protection

Movement

Store minerals

Produce blood cells

Muscular System

Muscles

Movement and posture

Heat

Nervous System

Brain and Spinal Cord

Receive process and store sensory input

Motor output

Coordinate organ system

Endocrine System

Testes, Ovaries, adrenal gland, pancreas, thymus, thyroid, pineal gland

Hormones

Coordinate organ system

Fluid and pH homeostasis

Regulate metabolism and stress response

Reproductive System

Testes, penis, ovaries, vagina, uterus

Produce and transport gametes

Homeostasis

Ability to maintain a relatively constant internal enviornment

Negative Feedback

Body responds to a stimuli with an intensity relative to the stimulus

Usually set internal condition

Body temperature

Positive Feedback

Brings about change in one direction

Starting signals are amplified until change is complete

Has specific start and end

Chromosome

Tightly bundled chromatin used to transmit genetic info from one generation to the next

Chromatin

DNA and their associated proteins

Sister Chromatids

Two identical parts that make up a chromosome

Centromre

Holds chromatids together

Cell Cycle

Interphase

Cell division

Interphase

When cell is doing normal function or prepping for cell division

G1

S

G2

G1

Cell returns to normal size

Organelles double

Gets material for DNA synthesis

S

Copy of DNA

DNA forms chromosomes

G2

Synthesizes proteins needed for cell division

Growth

Mitosis

Nuclear divison

Creates two identical daughter cells

Cytokinesis

Divison of cytoplasm

Checkpoints

Delays cell cycles unless certain conditions are met

G1

G2

M

G1 checkpoint

Main checkpoint

DNA is damaged it causes apoptosis

G2 checkpoint

Mitosis checkpoint

Mitosis occurs after DNA is replicated properly

If DNA is damaged apoptosis happens

M checkpoint

Spindle assembly checkpoint

Between metaphase and anaphase

If chromosomes aren’t aligned properly then mitosis wont continue

Centrosome

Mictrotubule organizing center of the cell

Made of two centrioles

Centrioles

Short cylinders of microtubules

Phases of mitosis

Prophase

Prometaphase

Metaphase

Ananphase

Telophase

Prophase

Duplicated chromosomes pull away

Spindle fibers appear

Nuclear envelope breaks

Nucleolus disappears

Prometaphase

Spindle fibers attatched to centromeres

Spindle poles move to opposite side of the cell

Metaphase

Spindle is fully formed

Metaphase plate is obvious

Chromosomes line up along metaphase plate

Anaphase

Spindle begins to move the chromosomes and pulls sister chromatids apart

Telophase

Starts when chromosomes arrive at the poles

Chromosome becomes chromatin

Spindles disappear

Nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis

Organelles and cytoplasm divide into two daughter cells

Cleavage furrow

Meiosis

How gametes are made

Parent cell is diploid and creates four haploid cells

Daughter cells are distinct

Meiosis 1 Steps

Prophase 1

Metaphase 1

Anaphase 1

Telophase 1

Prophase 1

Synapsis

Crossing Over

Metaphase 1

Homologous chromosomes align independently

Independent assortment

Anaphase 1

Homologous chromosomes seperate

Telophase 1

Daughter cells have one chromosomes from each homologous pair

Meiosis 2 Phases

prophase 2

Metaphase 2

Anaphase 2

Telophase 2