Understanding Memory: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval

Cognitive Psychology

Study of mental processes like memory.

Physiological Psychology

Examines brain changes during learning.

Memory

Recording past information for present use.

Encoding

Active process of converting stimuli into memory.

Storage

Holding information for later retrieval.

Retrieval

Locating stored information for conscious use.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of physical stimulus features.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage for information, requires rehearsal.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent storage of information over time.

Iconic Memory

Brief visual image stored for encoding.

Echoic Memory

Brief auditory echo of perceived sounds.

Sperling's Whole Report Procedure

Tests capacity of iconic sensory memory.

Rehearsal

Process to maintain information in short-term memory.

Auditory Memory

Type of sensory memory for sounds.

Visual Memory

Type of sensory memory for images.

Time Course of Memory

Duration-based classification of memory types.

Unconscious Memory

Memory processing without conscious awareness.

Memory Capacity

Amount of information stored in memory.

Fading Memory

Loss of information before encoding occurs.

Stimulus Encoding

Transformation of sensory input into memory.

Memory System

Framework for storing and retrieving information.

Memory Stages

Three phases: encoding, storage, retrieval.

Information Processing

How memory functions in cognitive tasks.

Memory Retention

Ability to hold information over time.

Long-Term Memory

Stable storage for information over time.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage for immediate recall.

Memory Span

Number of items recalled after one presentation.

Magic Number

Average limit of 7 ± 2 items.

Primacy Effect

Tendency to remember initial information better.

Recency Effect

Tendency to recall later information better.

Chunking

Grouping items to improve memory retention.

Phonological Loop

Stores sounds of language temporarily.

Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad

Stores visual and spatial information.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from various memory components.

Central Executive

Controls attention and coordinates memory processes.

Consolidation

Process of transferring STM to LTM.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Rote repetition without understanding material.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Associating new material with existing knowledge.

Visual Working Memory

Memory specific to visual information processing.

Verbal Working Memory

Memory specific to language processing.

Decay Theory

Information fades over time in STM.

Displacement Theory

New information replaces old in STM.

Attention

Focus needed for effective memory retention.

Neural Activity

Temporary patterns encoding information in STM.

Deep Processing

Understanding material enhances long-term retention.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information from memory.

Shallow Processing

Surface feature analysis leads to poor recall.

Deep Processing

Semantic feature analysis enhances memory retention.

Craik & Tulving (1975)

Studied elaboration effects on memory.

Elaboration

Enhancing memory by adding meaning to information.

Episodic Memory

Memories of specific personal events.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general concepts.

Explicit Memory

Conscious, intentional memory retrieval.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory activation and retrieval.

Procedural Memory

Memory of skills and actions.

Priming

Automatic activation of stored information.

Classical Conditioning

Learning associations between stimuli automatically.

Sachs (1967)

Examined episodic vs semantic memory differences.

Test Sentence

Original sentence used for memory comparison.

Comparison Sentence

Sentence used to test memory recall accuracy.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of ability to retrieve past memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories.

Stroop Effect

Automatic reading interferes with color naming.

Memory Recall

Retrieval of information from memory storage.

Memory Consolidation

Process of stabilizing memories after encoding.

Eyewitness Testimony

Reliance on memory for legal identification.

Memory Disruption

Factors affecting the accuracy of memory recall.

Recall Accuracy

Precision of retrieved memories during recall.

Meaning Detection

Identifying changes in meaning during recall.

Leading Questions

Questions that suggest a particular answer or response.

Misinformation Effect

Alteration of memory due to misleading information.

Retelling

Recounting events that solidifies personal recollections.

Open-ended Interviews

Interviews that allow free-form responses from witnesses.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific events.

Mental Heuristics

Cognitive shortcuts for efficient memory storage.

Eyewitness Testimony

Account of an event by someone who witnessed it.

Confidence in Testimony

Witness's belief in the accuracy of their memory.

Juror Perception

Jurors often favor confident witnesses despite accuracy.

False Memories

Inaccurate recollections of events that never occurred.

Children's Suggestibility

Children's memories can be influenced by suggestion.

Encoding

Process of forming a memory code from stimuli.

Storage

Maintaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Recovering stored information from memory.

Selective Attention

Focusing awareness on specific stimuli while ignoring others.

Structural Encoding

Shallow processing based on physical characteristics.

Phonemic Encoding

Intermediate processing based on sound of words.

Semantic Encoding

Deep processing based on the meaning of words.

Levels of Processing Theory

Deeper processing leads to longer-lasting memories.

Elaboration

Linking new information to existing knowledge.

Imagery

Creating visual representations to enhance memory.

Dual Coding Theory

Memory enhanced by both visual and semantic codes.

Self-referent Encoding

Assessing personal relevance of information during encoding.

Sensory Memory

Brief preservation of sensory information in original form.

Short-term memory

Stores unrehearsed information for about 20 seconds.

Rehearsal

Repetitively verbalizing or thinking about information.

Chunk

Group of familiar stimuli stored as one unit.

Working memory

Temporarily maintains and manipulates information.

Phonological loop

Part of STM for recitation and verbal information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Holds and manipulates visual images temporarily.

Central executive system

Manages attention and divides focus among tasks.