Environmental Science Chapter 2

Science

A process for producing knowledge methodically and logically.

Confounding factor

A variable that provides an alternative explanation for results (ex: heart disease could be caused by other things and not just cigarettes.)

System

A network of interdependent components and processes with materials and energy flowing from one component to another. Ex: Sun (component/input) → photosynthesis (process) → Plant growth (component/output).

Feedback

The output of a process affects the input. Ex: from above, the plant growth ends up blocking sunlight to other plants that need to grow.

Emergent properties

Characteristics present in the whole system but not its individual parts. Ex: human brain and neurons. Neurons work together to form a thought.

Pseudoscience

“False” science; because there is a correlation, we make causation naturally (correlation and causation).

Basic principles of science

Empiricism, uniformitarianism, parsimony, proof is elusive, testable questions, and repeatability

Karl Popper

falsifiable hypothesis (must be proven falsifiable to be considered science); science disconfirms, pseudoscience confirms.

Empiricism

learning through observation. Science can ONLY be done through observing

Uniformitarianism

The general patterns and processes are the same across time. Trusting major rules (gravity) to be consistent or true.

Parsimony

The simplest explanation is usually correct.

Proof is elusive

You never know the exact answer knowing it’s constantly changing. Never prove anything 100% science. We must be open to new data altering our conclusions.

Testable questions

Karl Popper; falsifiable hypothesis

Repeatability

If you can’t repeat results ever again, it’s not science.

Natural Experiment

Study of events that have already happened (ethical lock)

Manipulative experiment

Conditions are altered while all other variables remain constant (considered more accurate).

Blind study

The researcher who measures results doesn’t know which group is experimental and which is control.

Double blind study

The researcher who measures results AND the subjects do not know which group is experimental and which is control.

What makes a good sample/ sample size

Bigger samples are usually always better, but sometimes we can get away with a smaller sample when results are precise.

Independent variable

Controlled by researcher

Dependent Variable

Expected to change based on the independent variable

Graphing Variables

X-axis usually has independent variable

Correlation vs. Causation

Because there is a correlation, we make causation naturally; correlation does NOT always mean causation.

How to detect Pseudoscience

It confirms vs. disconfirms

Primary vs. secondary vs. tertiary literature

Primary sources/ literature are usually journals, while secondary and tertiary are less reliable and are usually in book form or something else.