Pomeroy: Chapter 2 The "Dark Age" of Greece and the 8th century "Renaissance" (c.1200-750/700 BC)

What happened to the population number between 1200 and 1050 BC?

Population dwindled just like everything else. Villages were abandoned and people died or fled.

By 1050 BC the population was the lowest in a thousand years, c. 30% of what it was in 1200 BC.

What happened socially in the period?

Utter poverty and stagnation. However, areas bordering the Aegean Sea, seems to have recovered much faster. Major centers, such as Athens occupation continued uninterrupted and many were reoccupied within two generations.

What remained the same?

Life became simpler for the people in Greece, though the farmers still grew the same crops, herded the same animals, women spun and wove their wool and flax. Potters and metalworkers still practiced their crafts, but at a lower level of skill and refinement. They still worshipped their gods and performed religious rituals.

What is Protogeometric style?

1050-900 BC, Attica and spread out. Superior pottery (well proportioned and finely decorated). More tools (ruler, compass with brushes) allowed for new patterns and less free hand "drawing".

Iron in Greece

1050 BC, due to trade being cut off, tin and copper were no longer available. Thus, the sources of iron ore were exploited, and the metal workers mastered the process and smelting and working iron. By 950 BC almost every weapon and tool found in graves were made of iron, not bronze (iron is the strongest).

When was Nichoria excavated?

1970s. The village was abandoned in 1200 BC, but came back to life in 1075 BC, where the small village prospered with 40-50 families led by a basileus.

Who were the Basileus?

Usually translated "king". The word occurs on the Linear B tablets as title of minor officers in the Mycenaean kingdom, now leaders of new smaller Greek communities in the Dark Age. Archaeological evidence = chieftains houses (residence for the local Basileus).

When was the settlement at Lefkandi excavated and what was significant about it?

1981. The largest Dark Age building yet, dating about 950 BC. Two burial shafts sunk into the building's central room. Two horses on top of each other in one and a cremated man and inhumed woman in the other. Woman is adorned with gold jewellery and gold necklace from 650 years before the burial. Woman could be the wife or sacrificed at man's burial.

What did the jewellery and iron weapons in the grave at Lefkandi show?

Suggests that by mid 9th century society had stratified with the Basileus and his supporters. Access to exotic luxuries and able to utilise labor in the community into large-scale projects. The building was buried soon after the burial, likely requiring the whole village (big project).

What is the Geometric style?

Protogeometric evolved into this new style that would mark a new period. Semi-/circles gave way to linear and angular motifs.

9th century craftsmen produced costly luxury items in gold, ivory and bronze (domestic use/long-distance trade), which attests to the renewed availability of raw materials.

What is an oral poet?

a skilled storyteller who performed in front of an audience supported by a stringed instrument, Kitharis.

Who was Homer

Greeks revered Homer as their greatest poet. Composed the Iliad and Odyssey.

Traditional oral poetry

Before writing. Bards (professional storyteller) could compose long, complex narratives as they performed. The poetry is flexible as the bard can adjust his poem according to the audience --> each performance fresh and updated.

What were a poets "formulas"?

A set of fixed phrases, lines that the poet had memorised and could vary as the occasion demanded.

Oral poetry written down

Usually within the poets lifetime. Frozen, could no longer be changed, re-created.

The Tale of the Trojan War

Paris, the son of King Priam of Troy seduced and brought back Helen, the wife of Menelaus, ruler of the Spartans. To avenge the insult, Menelaus and his brother Agamemnon, wanax of Mycenae gathered a huge army of Achaean warriors. The Archaeans sailed to Troy, destroyed the city after a 10-year siege and dispersed each contingent (group of people) to its own homeland.

The Age of Heroes

Encompasses 2 generations before the supposed Trojan War and 1 after. Homer's Epics are set in this period.

Did the Trojan War happen?

Archaeologist cannot prove that the war happened as Homer described. However, Troy VI, a walled citadel occupied the hill of Hisarlik for most of the 2nd millenium. Mycenaean pottery at the site indicate contact with Greece, and discoveries in 1990s of traces of a walled settlement south of the citadel, suggests that Troy VI may have been the center of a great city as Homer described.

What is a demos?

Homer's Greece divided into independent regions (demos) and its people each with contained several settlements + their farmlands.

What is a polis?

Main town of the demos, the most populated settlement and where the Basileus lived.

What is an oikos?

The smallest unit of Dark Age society -- the household, the center of a persons existence. Its preservation, well-being and social standing was important. This include the family, livestock, and all other property and goods.

Marriage

Daughters in Homer are prized. Suitors gave hedna (gifts to the father) as part of the marriage contract. The new bride moved into the husbands oikos, thus the children would belong to the husband's oikos, not hers.

A man had to have land to marry.

Patrilineal and patriarchal society

Father was the supreme leader in the household by custom and later by law. Descent was through the father.

What is a thēs

Poor, land-less free man who worked as hired hands. pl: thētes

Elite or commoner

9th century socioeconomic division. Elites had bigger farms more people --> big surplus in good years, trade for slaves and luxury items.

Commoner pastured enough sheep and goats for the family's consumption of wool, cheese and meat. Though not much extra in good years.

Chiefdom in Homer

Hereditary ruling, but a Basileus must also be competent warrior and persuasive speaker, good in war and peace.

A chief's status is measured by how many warriors will follow him (no one will follow a bad warrior).

Reciprocity in Homeric world

Fair and mutual exchange governs all social relationships. Raiding other demos was a way of life. Following the raid the loot would be laid out, the chief would take his share, incl. his special prize for fighting in the front, risking his life. The rest is given to the men to divide and share equally. The leader must show he his generous and openhanded, if he takes too much he risks losing the respect of his followers.

Government in Homeric world

Council, the boule, made up of chiefs and other influential men meet at ruling chief's (decisive voice) megaron.

Deliberations presented to an assembly (only men of fighting age and above) outdoor, agora.

Chiefs position was divinely sanctioned = Zeus upheld the ruling authority of the office of basileus

Small role in judicial matters. Laws not written down, more traditions. "Criminals were not arrested and jailed. Ex. a murder must negotiate a material penalty as compensation to the victims family. Thus, avoiding a destabilising internal feud.

Foreign Relations in Homeric world

Xenia ("guest-friends"): mutual bond of friendship and trust between individuals from different dēmoi. They would provide each other entertainment, lodging, and valuable parting gifts.

It was also protection and diplomatic aid and intervention to save a friend's life.

Xenia was assumed to be perpetual and was passed down from generation to generation through the male line.

Social values and ethics: Good (agathos) and bad (kakos)

Kakos: Man is a coward and useless in battle.

Agathos: when a man exhibits bravery and skill in fighting and athletic contests. Should exhibit self-control, be hospitable, respect women. It was proper to refrain from defiling corpses of enemies, show sympathy to captured warriors, though desirable these qualities are not required to be good.

Men competed in the art of killing, to enhance and preserve the timē.

What is timē?

One's value, worth, respect and honour.

Elite males often insists their value be recognised publicly, could be seat of honor at feasts, or choice of item from plunder.

Who is Hesiod?

Greek poet c. 700BC.

He said, a poor farmer is roused to work hard when he sees his neighbour getting rich, and "potter resents potter, and carpenter resents carpenter, and beggar is jealous of beggar, and singer of singer."

Women in the Homeric world

Male dominated society, women were dependent on men their entire life (father, brother, husband, and sons). Women were expected to act modestly in public and in company of men and above all chaste.

Women compete like men though in disciplines such as beauty, work (ex. weaving) and intelligence.

Women brought disgrace to herself and her family if she cheated, whereas the man was allowed concubines.

The women participated in festivities, walked freely about the village and countryside and served as priestesses.

Strong women in Homeric world

Clytemnestra: stabs her husband, Agamemnon in the heart.

Arete: shares some of her husband's (the Phaeacian basileus) authority.

Penelope: as cunning and resourceful as her husband, Odysseus.

What was Hesiod's Theogony?

A genealogical "history" of the gods. Series of generational wars among the ancient gods until the last generation, where the Olympians led by Zeus restored order in the universe --> Olympians did NOT create the universe.

They were offspring sexual unions, beginning with earth and sky. Thus, as the offspring of the physical world the gods embodied the forces of nature. Zeus was the sky and all its phenomena, but the Greeks anthropomorphised their deities, portraying them as idealised men and women.

Divine world mirrors the human condition:ex. Athena goddess of love, is the irresistible force of sexual desire.

What sets gods apart from humans?

- immorality

- ageless

- immune to deceases

- power to manipulate the mortal world

Did the Greeks believe in the afterlife?

Perception of personal afterlife was vague, they believed that existence ended when the soul left the body (moment of death). Dreary afterlife in the nether world. Punishment in Hades for those who insulted or tricked the gods.

Later, from influence from mystery cults, the idea of a blissful afterlife for the morally good and eternal torment for the bad would be highly developed.

The End of the Dark Age, when and signs

c.750-700 BC, dubbed Greek Renaissance, resembled the glories of the Mycenaean Age.

-population growth

- increasing political centralisation

- trade links multiplied

- communication with East intensified

- writing was reintroduced in Greece

- neighbouring areas met up to celebrate religious rituals.

- communities vied with each other in the production of luxury items.

----Not a break from the past, but an acceleration of trends visible already in the 10th century.

Landowning Aristocracy by the early 7th century

Population growth = pressure on land

The elite had appropriated the best land for their horses and animals, they converted this to growing crops, and acquired more land = elite owned a disproportionate amount of the total land.

People could get land in the outskirts of the demos for more hard work and less return, for the ambitious a solution was relocation abroad.

What is kleros?

a plot of agricultural land

Colonization and growth trade (p.59)

- increase in 8th century

- greeks move abroad, Southern Italy + Sicily

- 825 BC Euboea joined Al Mina

- c. 800 BC greek trading colony, Pithecusae

- 7th century once again important participants of the Aegean and the wider Mediterranean trade.

Economic effects:

- more work (craftsmen, haulers, sailers, etc.)

- good soil and sized kleros

- trade own products for raw materials

The alphabet and writing

Contact with East led to most significant cultural achievement = the alphabet.

Borrowed letters from Phoenician alphabet, and changed some into its own -- largely phonetic.

Writing was spread out in the Greek world, though there were numerous local scripts.

It was fairly easy to learn, though mass literacy was never achieved.

Late Dark Age - 8th century.

Art in Late Geometric period

Humans and animals start to become frequent depictions on pottery.

Mid-century: funerals, battles, shipwrecks appear.

Bronze sculptures and engraved metalwork also become more dynamic.

Architecture in the Late Geometrc period 750-700 BC

The monumental temple (signature greek). They were long, and made a clear distinction between divine and human houses.

Community's temple began to replace the chief's house as the focal point of the settlement.

Large temples indicate that people were able and wanted to spend their wealth, time, labor on projects that brought honor to the community.

What is Panhellenism?

pan = all, hellenism = Greece --> unity of the Greeks

Panhellenism and Heroic Revival of the 8th century

Rise of religious sanctuaries and festivals attracted worshippers from all over the Greek world.

Olympian games (every 4 years). By 6th century contestants came from all over Greece.

New interest in Bronze Age "ancestors", ancient tombs received offerings, the anonymous inhabitants were worshipped as heroes.

Some legendary figures were worshipped at special shrines set up to them, ex. Agamemnon in Mycenae, and Menelaus and Helen in Sparta.

Wealthy Greeks began to bury the dead as warriors (like at Lefkandi: cremated, weapons, sometimes also with horses).