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Acoustic/Auditory encoding
represent information as sequences of sounds, such as a tune or a rhyme.
Visual encoding
represent information as pictures,
such as the image of your best friend’s face.
Semantic encoding
represent the general meaning of an experience.
ex: If a teacher asks what we are learning in psyc, I don’t go into specifics but overall point was memory
Dual coding theory
pictures tend to be remembered better than words because pictures are represented in two codes, visual and verbal.
ex: movies over books
Storage
maintaining information in memory over time
ex: When you find that you can still use a
pogo stick that you haven’t played with since you were a child or that you can recall a vaca-
tion from many years ago, you are depending on the storage capacity of your memory.
Recall
being able to say or identify without hints, pictures, or questions of some sort
ex: recalling the presidents or US states with nothing but brain
Recognition
being able to identify things with hints or pictures
ex: having pictures of US presidents and recognizing them
Episodic memory
Any memory of a specific event that happened while you were present—that is, during an “episode” in your life
ex: what you did last summer, ate dinner last night
Flashbulb memory
vivid memories, remember in details: what you wear where you were, who was with you
ex: 9/11,
Semantic memory
type of memory containing generalized knowledge of the world.
ex: Knowing the official rules or how to score a match
Procedural memory/knowledge
Memory of how to do things, such as riding a bike or tying a shoelace
ex: knowing how to hit a ball
Prospective memory
“remembering to remember” tasks to be performed in the future
ex: deadlines, take medication, text happy birthday to someone
Constructive memory
Also known as reconstructive memory; we use new and existing information to create a memory
Declarative memory
memory to remember facts, dates
Explicit memory
The process of intentionally trying to remember
something
ex: Such as where you went on your last vacation or the correct answer to an exam question
implicit memory
The unintentional influence of prior experience
ex: you can solve a puzzle faster if you have solved it in the past, or implicit memories from your first reading would help you read a book more quickly the second time.
Information processing
earliest and most basic model of memory
Maintenance(shallow) rehearsal
try to keep it as long as needed, no connections or meaning to it
ex: phone number in short term memory
Elaborative (deep) rehearsal
how does new information relate to old information in long term memory, make a connection or meaning
Transfer-appropriate
encoding and retrieval are connected
ex: MC test might study different than an essay text
Parallel distributed processing
-all knowledge is connected and spread throughout brain, one word can trigger all these other memories
-everything connected
ex: word “sofa”
Multiple memory systems
brain has separate areas for storage
ex: brain damage can affect explicit or implicit memory
Encoding failure
Related to selective attention; the idea that we do not process/take in all the information and properly store it into long-term memory
ex: don’t know bottom color of flag or which presidents face is in what dollar
Framing effect
States that how a question is worded can affect one’s memory/answer
Misinformation effect
When given incorrect information, we tend to accept it as accurate/true
False memories
Memories that come from incorrect/made up information
Repressed memories
Memory that has been pushed out of our conscious awareness and into our unconscious
Mandela effect
phenomenon in which people misremembers a significant event or shares a memory of an event that did not actually occur.
ex: logos and slogans
primacy effect
If given a list of words, we tend to only remember the first few items.
recency effect
If given a list of words, we tend to only remember the last few items
von restorff effect
If given a list of words, we remember the distinctive and unique ones; also called isolation effect
sensory memory
A type of memory that holds large amounts of information very briefly, but long enough for it to be processed further. helps us experience a constant flow of information, even if that
flow is interrupted.
short-term memory
memory that remember for only 18-20 seconds
working memory
Part of the memory system that allows us to mentally manipulate information being held in short-term memory
long-term memory
relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity to store new information is believed to be unlimited.
mood congruency effect
explains how a person is able to recall a memory in more detail if it coincides with their mood at the current time.
ex: a student in a grumpy mood would be more likely to remember the negative aspects of a presentation from class.
motivated forgetting
nothing correlated to mood, remember the good memories rather than the bad memories
state-dependent memory
Memory can be aided or hindered by a person’s mental condition (example – test anxiety)
context-dependent memory
Memory can be aided or hindered depending on the similarities and differences of the environment where the information was learned vs retrieved.
method of savings
measures forgetting and difference between learning vs. relearning, relearning method
ex: if it took me 6 days to learn ch. 7 and it took me 6 days to relearn it, my savings were 0%
decay
gradual disappearance
proactive interference
when it becomes harder to recall new information because of old information in the past.
ex: upon moving into a new house, one might find themselves accidentally writing their old address down when filling out forms
retroactive interference
conditions in which new learning interferes with old learning
ex: a musician might learn a new piece, only to find that the new song makes it more difficult to recall an older, previously learned piece.
anterograde amnesia
struggle to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
loss before injury. cannot remember past events or experiences.
source amnesia
not caused by head trauma, cant remember where the information came from
Mnemonics
Strategy for remembering by using acronyms such as HOMES for the Great Lakes
method of loci
Strategy for remembering where an individual uses visualizations to help remember names or list; put them (or it) into a place within your home
chunking
Memory strategy that has you break the information into smaller pieces in order to remember it
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
When retrieving incomplete knowledge; we know some of the info., but need clues to “get it out”
feeling-of-knowing experience
When retrieving incomplete knowledge; we are better at recognition than recall; “we will know it once we see it”
Korsakoff’s syndrome
Disorder in chronic alcoholics: person’s brain cannot use glucose as fuel; results in severe brain damage
Immediate memory span
Maximum number of items (5-7) a person can recall perfectly after only one presentation of the item
Implicit social cognitions
Past experiences that unconsciously influence a person’s judgments about a group of people
distributed practice
The spacing of study sessions over an extended period of time
mass practice
A long period of concentrated studying (cramming)
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