Criminal behaviour textbook (Midterm)

A series of flashcards covering key concepts, facts, and theories regarding crime in Canada, including statistics, case studies, and relevant legal frameworks.

What is Samir's background in relation to criminal behavior? (textbook example)

Samir was incarcerated at the age of 28 for armed robbery, had served previous time for property crimes, dropped out of high school before grade 10, and struggled with maintaining employment.

What type of crime constitutes the majority of reported incidents in Canada as of 2020?

Property crimes accounted for 58% of all reported criminal incidents.

What percentage of criminal incidents in Canada were non-violent in 2020?

76% of criminal incidents reported to the police were non-violent.

Describe the main goal of the 'Get Tough on Crime' era in Canada.

The goal was to restore balance in the criminal justice system by instituting stricter laws, including abolishing early parole for non-violent first-time federally sentenced offenders.

What were the implications of the 2011 amendment to the criminal code regarding first-degree homicide?

Judges could impose consecutive 25-year parole ineligibility periods, leading to a potential waiting period of 125 years before parole could be considered for multiple murders.

What findings were reported about systemic issues in the Canadian correctional system?

Systemic biases against Black and Indigenous inmates and failures in providing basic healthcare to pregnant women were highlighted.

What role does media play in the perspective of crime and correction in Canada?

Media investigations have drawn attention to systemic problems within the correctional system that adversely affects marginalized individuals.

What is a significant change introduced by the Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA)?

It aims to keep youth out of court and custody whenever possible, focusing on rehabilitation and reintegration.

What is the average rate of recidivism for custodial sentences in Canada?

Recidivism rates for custodial sentences average 54%, compared to 46% for non-custodial sentences.

What did researchers find regarding the effectiveness of community-based sentencing compared to custodial sentences?

Community-based sentences like probation are generally more effective at lowering recidivism rates than custodial sentences.

How does classifying children under 12 years in Canada differ from those older than 12 in terms of criminal responsibility?

Children under 12 cannot be charged under the Canadian Criminal Code and are managed under the Child and Family Services Act.

What does the term 'intra-individual differences' refer to in the context of criminology?

Variations in an individual's criminal conduct across time.

What does 'inter-individual differences' signify?

Variations in criminal conduct between groups or individuals.

Explain one major risk factor for juvenile delinquency identified by research studies.

Association with delinquent peers is a significant risk factor for engaging in antisocial behavior.

What does the term 'protective factors' refer to in the context of youth offending?

Variables that decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes, such as substance abuse, or increase the likelihood of positive outcomes.

What are the three main levels of prevention/intervention for adolescent offending?

Universal prevention (for all youth), selective prevention (for at-risk youth), and indicated prevention (for youth already engaging in offending).

What are the main objectives of the Youth Canadian Criminal Justice Act?

Prevent youth crime, provide meaningful consequences, and improve rehabilitation and reintegration into the community.

What problematic trend did the 2019 youth crime statistics reveal?

Rates of youth homicide cases increased compared to previous years.

Which minority groups face elevated risks of justice system involvement due to unique social conditions?

2SLGBTQ+ youth often face higher rates of childhood maltreatment, peer rejection, and homelessness.

According to Moffitt's dual taxonomy, what characterizes Life Course Persistent (LCP) offenders?

LCP offenders display behavioral problems early in childhood, continuing into adolescence and often adulthood.

What does the term 'adolescent limited (AL) offenders' indicate?

Youth whose antisocial behavior emerges primarily during their teenage years and tends to desist following adolescence.

How are psychopathic traits measured in youth, according to the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV)?

It measures traits such as callousness, impulsivity, and antisocial behavior, scored on a 3-point scale.

What impact does poor parental supervision have on youth?

Poor supervision is linked to higher risks of future antisocial behavior and juvenile offending.

What is the significance of emotional and behavioral assessments in children identified with problematic behaviors?

These assessments help guide treatment and highlight the need for tailored interventions.

Which area of the brain has been found to be associated with antisocial behavior and violence?

Impairments in the prefrontal cortex are linked to difficulties in impulse control and decision-making.

What does 'neuropsychology' examine in the context of criminal behavior?

Neuropsychology evaluates how brain functioning affects behavioral outcomes, including the impact of brain injury or dysfunction.

What is the aim of restorative justice in the Canadian criminal justice system?

To restore relationships by focusing on healing the harm caused to victims, offenders, and the community.

How did the 'Nothing Works' perspective impact rehabilitation efforts in the 1970s?

It contributed to a pessimistic view of rehabilitation, leading to a shift towards punitive approaches.

What is the Good Lives Model (GLM) in rehabilitative practice?

GLM emphasizes building meaningful, prosocial lives for offenders by addressing their strengths and aspirations.

What are the primary criminogenic needs targeted by rehabilitation programs?

Substance abuse, antisocial attitudes, poor social skills, and lack of employment training.

Why is it essential to tailor interventions based on individual risk profiles?

Tailoring interventions ensures they are responsive and effective in reducing recidivism among different populations.

What did meta-analytic findings on violent video games indicate about their influence on behavior?

Exposure to violent video games is linked to increased aggression, decreased empathy, and higher likelihood of antisocial behavior.

What is the purpose behind the implementation of structured risk assessment tools in the justice system?

To predict reoffending and guide the allocation of treatment resources effectively.

What key principle does the RNR model follow in rehabilitation?

Interventions must match the individual's level of risk, target criminogenic needs, and be delivered responsively to their characteristics.

What limitations are present in the usage of risk assessment tools?

Risk assessment tools may be influenced by biases, and their predictive accuracy can be variable based on context and population.

What is restorative justice's approach to incidents of youth crime?

It seeks to address the harm caused by crime through dialogue and reparation rather than solely relying on punitive measures.

What ongoing challenges exist regarding youth gang involvement?

Youth gang members experience a high rate of criminal behavior influenced by family dynamics, socioeconomic status, and peer associations.

Aside from early interventions, what other strategies are discussed in the context of youth rehabilitation?

Functional Family Therapy (FFT) and Multisystemic Therapy (MST) are highlighted as successful interventions for at-risk youth.

Criminal Incidents in Canada

• 76% are non-violent

• Property crimes (break & enter, theft, fraud, mischief) = 58% of all reported incidents

Sentencing in Canada

• Most guilty individuals end up being sentenced in either probation or short custodial sentence (<6 months)

• (Sources: Department of Justice, 2017; Public Safety Canada, 2022)

Custodial Sentences

Most people with longer custodial sentences are eventually released back into the community

Reintegration Needs

• People sentenced must:

  • Rebuild family & community relationships

  • Find employment

  • Learn/adopt a prosocial lifestyle

  • Avoid further encounters with justice system

Who led the “Get Tough on Crime” era in Canada?

Prime Minister Stephen Harper.

What was the main goal of the “Get Tough on Crime” laws?

To restore “balance” in the criminal justice system.

What change was made to early parole?

Early parole was abolished for non-violent, first-time federally sentenced offenders.

How was inmate accountability increased?

Offenders had to pay more for costs like room & board and phone usage.

How was the inmate grievance system changed?

It was overhauled to reduce frivolous complaints and redesign how prisoners file formal complaints.

What new rights were given to victims of crime?

Victims gained more access to information, participation in decisions, and the right to restitution.

What new rights did victims gain under the “Get Tough on Crime” era?

• Get more information about the offender/case

• Take part in parole hearings or related decisions

• Have better chances of receiving restitution/compensation

What major change was made to parole eligibility in 2011?

The Criminal Code was amended so courts could impose consecutive 25-year parole ineligibility periods for multiple first-degree murders.

How would parole ineligibility work after the 2011 amendment if someone killed 5 people?

• If you killed 5 people, the court could order the 25-year periods to run consecutively, meaning they would have to wait 125 years before even being considered for parole.(cuz each body represent 25 years) (5x25=125) 

How was parole ineligibility different before 2011?

Offenders typically faced only one 25-year ineligibility period, regardless of how many murders they committed.

What does “parole ineligibility” mean?

It is the mandatory time a prisoner must serve before applying for parole.

: What role has media played in corrections?

Media has drawn attention to systemic problems in the correctional system that negatively affect criminalized people.

Before the 2011 amendment, how long was parole ineligibility for first-degree murder, no matter how many victims?

One 25-year period.

What does “parole ineligibility” mean?

The minimum time a prisoner must serve before being allowed to apply for parole

After the 2011 Criminal Code amendment, how did parole ineligibility change for multiple murders?

Courts could impose consecutive 25-year periods for each murder.

If someone was convicted of 4 first-degree murders after 2011, how many years before they could apply for parole?

100 years (4 × 25).

What systemic problems in Canadian prisons has media exposed?

Bias, lack of healthcare, COVID hardships, solitary confinement, and invasive practices like dry cells.

What systemic bias was revealed by media investigations?

Black and Indigenous inmates face disproportionate discrimination (Cardoso, 2020).

What issue was highlighted regarding healthcare for incarcerated women?

Failure to provide basic healthcare, such as in the case of a woman whose baby died after being born in jail (Gilna, 2018).

How did COVID-19 affect incarcerated populations?

Created severe hardships due to poor prison conditions (Rodriguez, 2021).

What inhumane practice is still used in Canadian prisons?

Solitary confinement, sometimes amounting to torture (CBC News, 2022).

What is a “dry cell” and what change was made?

A dry cell is used for prisoners suspected of carrying contraband in their bodies; in 2022, they were banned for women prisoners (Osman, 2022).

What is “dry celling”?

A form of solitary confinement where a prisoner is held in a cell with no running water or toilet and monitored 24/7 so human waste can be inspected for contraband.

Why was dry celling used in Canadian prisons?

When staff suspected contraband hidden in a body cavity (rectum or vagina).

What was the legal problem with dry celling for women?

The law was written with the rectum in mind (natural expulsion), but for vaginal concealment there was no natural process to end confinement, leading to longer and discriminatory detentions.

What did the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia rule in November 2021 about dry celling?

It was discriminatory and unconstitutional under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

What happened in the Lisa Adams case?

She was held in a dry cell for 16 days in Nova Scotia on suspicion of hiding crystal meth in her vagina, but a medical exam showed she was not carrying drugs.

What major law did the Trudeau government pass in 2018 regarding cannabis?

The Cannabis Act, which legalized the sale and purchase of small amounts of cannabis for people aged 18+.

Why did the federal government grant BC an exemption to decriminalize certain drugs?

To respond to the rise in illicit drug-related deaths in the province.

When did BC’s three-year drug decriminalization period begin?

January 31, 2023

What drugs are included in BC’s decriminalization exemption?

Small amounts of opioids, cocaine, methamphetamine, and ecstasy.

What trend has the Supreme Court of Canada (SCC) shown regarding conservative sentencing reforms?

The SCC has repeatedly struck them down as unconstitutional.

What was the issue in R. v. Lloyd (2016)?

A 1-year mandatory minimum for drug crimes prevented judges from giving lighter sentences in minor cases.

What did the SCC decide in R. v. Lloyd (2016)?

The mandatory minimum was unconstitutional, as it could lead to unfairly harsh punishment.

What was the issue in R. v. Safarzadeh-Markhali (2016)?

People denied bail (due to prior convictions) didn’t receive credit for time served, making them serve more time than others.

What did the SCC decide in R. v. Safarzadeh-Markhali (2016)?

The law was unconstitutional — everyone must get credit for time served, regardless of bail history.

What was the issue in R. v. Bissonnette (2022)?

Consecutive 25-year parole ineligibility for multiple murders meant offenders could be sentenced to die in prison with no realistic chance of release.

What did the SCC decide in R. v. Bissonnette (2022)?

The law was unconstitutional, and parole ineligibility for first-degree murder remains capped at 25 years, no matter how many murders.

What change did the Conservative government make in 2011 regarding parole ineligibility for first-degree murder?

Judges could “stack” 25-year parole ineligibility periods for each murder.

What did “stacking” parole ineligibility mean in practice?

Multiple murders could lead to parole eligibility only after 50, 75, 100+ years — essentially ensuring offenders died in prison.

What did the Supreme Court rule in R. v. Bissonnette (2022)?

Struck down stacked parole ineligibility as unconstitutional because it violated human dignity and removed realistic chances of rehabilitation.

What is the current maximum parole ineligibility for first-degree murder in Canada?

25 years, no matter how many murders.

What systemic issue do Black and Indigenous people face in Canada’s prison system?

They face barriers to reintegration and are treated more harshly than White prisoners.

What did the May 31, 2022 Auditor General’s report reveal?

Black and Indigenous prisoners are held longer and placed at higher security levels than White prisoners.

What has the Correctional Investigator repeatedly warned about?

Systemic issues and reintegration barriers facing Indigenous prisoners.

What specific concerns did the Correctional Investigator raise in 2016 and 2021?

• 2016: Reintegration barriers for Indigenous prisoners in general

• 2021: Unique and significant barriers faced by Indigenous women in prison

What are intra-individual differences in criminal behavior?

Variations in one person’s criminal conduct across time (e.g., escalating from theft to more serious crime, then stopping).

What are inter-individual differences in criminal behavior?

Variations in criminal conduct between people or groups (e.g., some commit fraud, others commit assault).

How does psychology differ from sociology in studying crime, according to McGuire (2004)?

Psychology focuses on individuals (microscope/high magnification), while sociology focuses on groups.

Why is it important to consider both social context and individual differences in understanding crime?

Because people in similar circumstances may behave very differently (e.g., poverty does not always lead to crime, and wealth doesn’t guarantee lawfulness).

What does Piquero (2008) mean when saying “justice-impacted people are heterogeneous”?

People in the justice system differ widely in background, behavior, and circumstances; they are not all the same.

What problem arises when looking only at aggregate age–crime data?

It hides important individual differences in life paths (Barnett et al., 1987; Hussong et al., 2004).

What does the age–crime curve show?

About 70% of offenders commit more crime in their teens/20s, then reduce activity as they age (Piquero, 2008).

Who are life-course-persistent offenders?

The small percentage who remain criminally active into adulthood, unlike most who “age out” of crime.

What is the main implication of these findings?

Group-level crime trends must be combined with individual differences to fully understand criminal behavior.

What is the broad definition of forensic psychology?

Application of psychology to the legal system, including work with offenders, victims, law enforcement, and legal processes (Pozzulo et al., 2021).

What is the narrow/clinical definition of forensic psychology?

Clinical psychology practiced in legal contexts, focusing on mental health assessments, therapy, and offender evaluations (Huss, 2009).

What is the court-focused definition of forensic psychology?

Study of risk assessment and expert testimony to guide legal decision-making rather than understanding criminal behavior (McGuire, 2002).