Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization

Topic 1: Context and Causes of the Cold War

Context

Cold War: A conflict in which neither party engages in direct military conflict with each other. Rather, plays out through arms race (nuclear weapons/hydrogen bombs, proxy wars, propaganda campaigns, space race).

Tehran Conference

• Agreement to open a second front against Nazi Germany in Western Europe

• US, Britain, and Russia would fight against Germany until unconditional surrender

  → Many disagreements arose, causing distrust to grow out of the meeting

Yalta Conference

• Major goal was to determine post-war organization of Axis territory

• Stalin entered Pacific fight against Japan

• Stalin agreed for free elections in Poland

Potsdam Conference

• Soviet troops occupied much of Western Europe. Truman wanted free elections in those occupied areas, but Stalin refused

  → US and Soviet Union no longer trusted each other and marked the start of the cold war

Creation of the UN

UN (United Nations): Peacekeeping entity that would replace the failed League of Nations. Purpose was to create a forum which countries could peacefully resolve disputes

• Permanent members of the UN had the power to veto discussion of any issue brought before the council

• The Soviet Union did not allow any complaints against Soviet Union and used only to achieve their own goals

  → US and Soviet Union engaged in non-military stand off due to the UN

The United States was the most powerful country in the world after WWII. US was far ahead due to limited destruction and financial stability. Only the Soviet Union would be able to compete, which fueled rivalry during the cold war.

Causes

Conflicting Ideologies: Communism vs. Capitalism

US:

• Free election of leaders, with multiple political parties

• Capitalist: private individuals owned means of productions. Workers worked for their own self-interest

Soviet Union:

• Authoritarian communist government with only one single party

• Communist: government controlled and owned means of production that was then distributed equally

→ Soviets tried to influence other countries towards communism. There was already a history of Bolshevik support of communist revolutions in other countries, with the idea that capitalism would be overthrown everywhere (“World Revolution”). This made the US wary of Soviet attempts to promote communism as they hoped capitalist democracy flourished in Europe.

Post War Germany & a “Divided” Europe

After WWII, Germany was split into four occupational zones, controlled by victorious allied powers. Berlin was also divided, although it was located in Soviet zone. Western Allies sought to rebuild Germany as a democratic and capitalist state while Soviets wanted as a communist buffer zone. → Led to the formal split of Germany into the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic.

Soviet Union occupied and claimed countries in Eastern Europe, which became satellite nations. Europe was then split into communist Eastern Europe and capitalist Western Europe (the “iron curtain”). The spread of communist Soviet Union prompted action by the US.

Truman Doctrine / Policy of Containment (1947)

Truman Doctrine: interventionist foreign policy of the US to support “free” people who were resisting attempted subjugation of outside pressure (usually communism).

Dedicated to the “containment” of communism, which meant preventing any further expansion of Soviet influence. This increased conflicts and rivalry between the two nations.

Marshall Plan

Marshall Plan: European Recovery Program, or commonly called the Marshall Plan, proposed to rebuild European cooperation and capitalism. It provided more than $13 billion to reconstruct Europe. The Marshall Plan forestalled communist or soviet influence in devastated nations in Europe.

The Soviet Union resisted what it saw as capitalist imperialism. It established the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance as an alternative to the Marshall plan.

Official Division of Germany in 1949

The United States, Soviet Union, Britain, and France occupied Germany and its capital Berlin, which were divided into zones for administrative purposes. Soviets retaliated to Western powers merging their occupation zones by blockading all road, rail, and water links between Berlin and Western Germany.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

Americans and British responded to the Soviet blockade in Berlin and West Germany with airlift to keep west Berlin’s inhabitants alive. After the blockade, US, British, and French zones formed the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and Soviet zone formed German Democratic Republic (East Germany).

Formation of Military Alliances: NATO (1949) & the Warsaw Pact (1955)

US-sponsored NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and Soviet-controlled Warsaw Pact signaled militarization of the cold war. Intent was to maintain peace through collective security, meaning an attack against a member meant an attack against all.

Topic 2: Effects of the Cold War on Asia, Africa, & Latin America

The US and Soviet Union did not directly come into military contact with one another. Instead, they sought to maintain control through proxy wars.

• Proxy War: a conflict where major powers support opposing sides in a conflict, often through military aid, funding, or training, without directly engaging in combat themselves

Korean War

After WWII, Soviet Union and United States had agreed to split Korea into two, administered by both. The war began when North Korea invaded South Korea in an attempt to reunite the country under its leadership.

UN military forces supported South Korea, and US provided the largest military support. Soviet Union sent money and weapons to North Korea (also joined later by China). Soviets wanted to reunite the entire peninsula under one, communist government.

After three years of fighting, war ended in stalemate. Korea remained divided with a demilitarized zone in between.

Vietnam War

Vietnamese soldiers rove the French out of their territory. The newly-independent country was split into North Vietnam, controlled by Soviets, and South Vietnam, controlled by the US.

Following the Truman Policy of Containment, US sent military advisors and support to Vietnam to prevent communist takeover by North Vietnam.

• Domino Theory: belief that if one country in a region became a communist nation, others will follow

Soviet Union in turn funded North Vietnamese and aided with military advisors.

Vietnam War made citizens lose trust in the US government after being misled about military success. After decades of warfare, North Vietnamese were victorious after US military resolve weakened.

Angolan Civil War

Angola won its independence after a 14-year armed struggle. However, different ethnics groups wanted the country’s control of diamond mines, and were supported by different countries. US financially supported the anti-communist UNITA. Encouraged to pursue military option rather than negotiating a settlement due to fear of domino effect in Southern Africa. Soviets lent financial and political support for the communist MPLA.

Civil war broke out for 27 years. Rivals agreed on cease-fire, but threats of violence still remained. MPLA prevailed.

Contra War (Nicaragua Civil War)

43-year dictatorship was ended by socialist revel group Sandinistas. Conservative opponents of Sandinistas, called the Contras, tried to overthrow them. US supported the Contras with training and funding. Soviet Union and Cuba poured signifiant money into aiding the Sandinista government.

The Contra War ended after the signing of the Tela Accord and demobilization of Contra and Sandinista armies. After a decade of warfare, Sandinistas lost elections.

Afghan-Soviet War

After Soviet-friendly leader was assassinated in Afghan, Soviets intervened militarily to install a soviet loyalist. Resistance groups appeared, supported by the US. US gave money and the stinger missiles to support the resistance.

Soviet Union invaded militarily, taking control of the country with troops. Afghanistan bordered the Soviet Union, making it important in Soviet’s sphere of influence. They feared that Afghanistan would side with the US, which was an unacceptable threat to their communist rule.

Soviet Union withdrew and subsequently collapsed.

Bay of Pigs & Cuban Missile Crisis

Fidel Casto and communist revolutionaries overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batistas and nationalized foreign-owned industries. United States broke off trade and diplomatic ties due to nationalization.

Cuban exiles who opposed Castro asked US for support, but resulting Bay of Pigs invasion was a failure. They attempted multiple times to assassinate Castro and undermine his regime.

Casto accepted Soviet aid and aligned Cuba’s foreign policy with the Soviet Union. Cuba became an essential trading partner and also served as military ally with the Soviets. In response to Bay of Pigs, Soviets provided support to Cuba with arms and military advisors. This cemented the Cuba-Soviet alliance.

Soviet Union sent nuclear weapons to Cuba, which prompted a possibility of a nuclear war. Ultimately, the two leaders pulled back. Soviets removed delivered missiles from Cuba and US from Turkey. Leaders realized that better communication was needed and set up a Hot Line → direct telegraph link between US and soviet offices

Topic 3: Global Spread of Communism

20th century China struggled against foreign imperialism. Unequal treaties and rising Japanese power meant China lost control of key ports, cities, and spheres of influence to foreign control.

Guomindang (GMD) became China’s new government. However, it struggled to maintain unity, and warlords ran most of China. At the same time, revolutionaries inspired by socialist anti-imperialist formed Communist Party of China (CCP).

Communists tried to gain power, while nationalists surpressed them.

Both parties were united against Japanese imperialists who were pushing into Manchuria.

After, China was divided into civil war. Although GMT was supported by the US, the CCP were victorious and established a new socialist nation.

• Qing Dynasty collapses and leads to rise of Chlang Kai-Sheck, a nationalist leader of China. Mao Zaodong begins growing Chinese Communist Party by gaining support from the peasants. Mao’s victory in China’s civil war was a huge blow to American idea of containment → People’s Republic of China Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established rival Chinese Nation → Republic of China

Rise and Consequences of Communism in China

Under Chairman Mao, the main policies were lower rent, redistribution of land, energizing of economy, and upholding women’s rights. He liberated land from wealthy landlords, often to humiliation and violence. Marriage and land reforms gave women more rights and entered the workforce. Following the Soviet Union, China centralized industries (5-year plan) that focused on heavy industry.

Great Leap Forward: Social and economic campaign by Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao. Primary goal was the rapidly transform China from agrarian society to an industrialized socialist nation.

• Collectivization of Agriculture: Forced peasants to merge farms, intended to increase agricultural productivity. State/government run farms forced peasants to work under a communist ideology.

  • → However, productivity declined due to misaligned incentives, division of labor to other industries, and natural disasters. Resulted in millions of deaths from famine due to quotas that were too large, and ultimately ruined economic progress.

• Backyard Furnaces: Intended to increase steel production and accelerate industrialization. Citizens were encouraged to make their own furnaces and make steel from metal scraps.

  • → Unrealistic production targets and poor-quality materials led to production of unusable steel. Additionally, grain production decreased when workers were diverted to backyard furnaces, contributing to the famine.

• Persecution: those who resisted collectivization, criticized the regime, or dared to point out flaws were punished severely. Punishments included forced labor, beatings, public humiliation, and even execution.

Cultural Revolution

Aimed to reassert Maoist ideology in China and eliminate perceived threats from “burgeois” influence and “traditional” thoughts → Wanted to purge any capitalist influences

• Mobilization of young people in Red Guard Movement

• Campaign to destroy “four olds”: customs, culture, habits, and ideas → destruction of historical artifacts

• Persecution of anyone perceived as class enemy or tied to old regime

• Promote cult of personality around Mao Zedong

• Educational and economic disruption: schools and universities shut down

Socialism, Communism, Land Redistribution Programs in Other Countries

Iran

The leader, Reza Shah Pahlavi, supported the Nazis. He introduced authoritarian regime, but was supported by US and Great Britain financially.

White Revolution abolished system of feudalism that reduced many peasants to status close to slavery. Purchased land from feudal landlords at fair market value and sold to peasants at discounted price. Other reforms included granting women right to vote, education, formation on literary corps, and nationalization of forest and water resources.

Many peasants received too little to be self-sufficient which led to poverty, migration to cities, and unemployment. Secular policies angered religious leaders and push for Westernization was seen as betrayal of Iranian and Islamic traditions and culture. Resentment also built up due to secret police. Weakened Shah’s legitimacy and led to the Islamic Revolution, establishing an Islamic-based government.

Ethiopia

Ethiopian Revolution overthrew the monarchy of Haile Seiassie, the previous leader of Ethiopia. Many had been dissatisfied at old system of land ownership that made many peasants rent out land and pay tribute. Derg formed and Ethiopia became Marxist-Leninist state. Leadership went to Mengistu Haile Mariam, heavily supported by the Soviet Union.

Reformations included state control over the economy, implementation of socialist principles, price controls, subsidies for farmers, and rationing system.

• Villagization: aimed to relocate rural communities to larger villages to facilitate provision of basic service and infrastructure

All of Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s land holding were taken, Abolished Christianity as state religion and adopted atheism.

→ Agricultural output suffered due to civil war, drought, and misguided practices. Mengistu was later put on trial for genocide because of many executions that took place under the “Red Terror.” Economic side of land reforms for the church was received, as church’s land was redistributed to peasants. However, population was angered by stripping Christianity as official religion as majority of Ethiopia was Christian.

Topic 4: Decolonization in Africa and Asia

India

Mahatma Ghandi was an Indian independence leader. Ghandi used peaceful methods of resistance such as marching and boycotting British goods. Ghandi resisted using the salt act and started a campaign of civil disobedience.

• Salt Act: Ghandi and his followers marched with the intention of producing salt. For 24 days, more people joined in and made a salt defiance against the British

• Gandhi embraced the idea of a moral philosophy like “ahimsa” (tolerance and nonviolence) and the technique of passive resistance called satyagraha (truth and firmness).

• Ghandi told the Indian population to return all British goods and return to wearing homespun cotton clothing as a way to boycott.

Ghandi obtained a negotiating role at London’s conference for Indian independence.

Religious divisions between Hindus and Muslims significantly complicated India’s independence. although the Indian National Congress initially unite both groups, the Muslim league grew rather concerned about Hindu domination.

Vietnam

Ho Chi Minh: communist revolutionary leader that leads the resistance movements in Vietnam against the French. Ho Chi Minh had been disappointed during the treaty of versailles when his people were shown lack of support from other countries.

Independence was achieved through armed resistance, and artillery, such as bombs and European guns. Using guerilla warfare, Vietnam was successful in defeating French forces in Dien bein phu, ending French military rule.

Vietnam gets divided from the Geneva Accords. North Vietnam was controlled by Ho Chi Minh and communists, while the South was controlled by non-communists. South Vietnam, with the support of the US, sought to prevent spread of communism. North Vietnam received support from Soviet Union and China. This later led to conflict between the two regions.

Kenya

Jomo Kenyatta spent 15 years in Europe and was a well known Kenyan nationalist. He led Kenya to independence.

Used armed resistance where Kenyans used violence, and the British declared a state of emergency. Kikuyu fighters broke British resolve in Kenya and gained international grievance for Africans. Despite the defeats of Kenya, the British responded to Kenya’s call for independence by negotiation.

• Conflicts arose between those who rebelled and those who did not, persecuting against their own population.

Algeria

Algerian War of Liberation was led by the Front Libération Nationale (FLN). It was a political party that advocated for independence from France.

Relied on bases in mountainous areas and resorted to guerilla warfare, Waged war, leading to thousands of Algerian deaths. ALN adopted similar tactics of nationalist movements in Asia who fought for French independence.

FLN used shootings, bombs, strikes, etc. French used torture, movement control, and curfews.

Ghana

Kwame Nkrumah ruled from 1909-1972. He supported poverty stricken ex soldiers who fought for Britain in WWII. Riots and social unrest broke out, resulting in Nkrumah and other nationalists to be arrested and further repressed by Britain power. Nkrumah founded the CPP, Convention People’s Party.

Kwame Nkrumah sought to reform rather than to overthrow. Nkrumah negotiated the transfer of power in the Gold Coast colony by launching mass-based campaigns through the CPP. The CPP was supported by link economic and social grievances, they wanted political independence. They rejected limited British constitutional reforms, launched the “Positive Action” campaign of strikes, boycotts, and disobedienceTopic 5: Newly Independent States

Sparked other African nationalist movements after Ghana gained independence. 30 other African countries declared independent in the decade prior.

Topic 5: Newly Independent States

Creation of India and Pakistan

Kashmir: ruler was Hindu but the population was majority Muslim.

Partition: Pakistan (West Pakistan and East Pakistan) formed for Muslim and India remained mainly Hindu. It intended to split people of different religious backgrounds but did not naturally split geographically neatly.

As a result, an estimated 15 million people moved or were forced to move. This led to violence, especially in border areas, with an estimated 1 million deaths.

1st Indo-Pakistani War: War broke out and India retained ownership of Kashmir. Kashmir was divided by line of control which divided Pakistani and Indian controlled sections of Kashmir.

East Pakistan sought independence from West Pakistan. India supported this and East Pakistan became Bangladesh.

Pakistani forces and India remained having conflicts. International community feared these conflicts since both India and Pakistan were nuclear nations.

Creation of Israel and Palestine

Treaty of Versailles: unwilling to apply self-determination to the Ottoman empires and instead created the “mandate System” for Arab territories. Administration of mandates fell to victorious powers of the Great War. → Violated promises made to Arabs by French and British leaders during the war of Jewish homeland in Palestine and Arab independent states

Before WWI, Ottoman Empire was religiously diverse, with Christian and Muslim majority and Jew minority. Jewish immigration during WWII greatly increased Jewish population in Palestine

Balfour Declaration: issued by British government, announced British support for establishment of “a national home for Jewish people” which contradicted promises of Arab independence by supporting Jewish settlement. Arabs saw as a threat to their political and territorial rights to Palestine. → Increased Jewish immigration to Palestine, increased tensions between Jews and Arabs in the Middle East

Once British mandate terminated and withdrew, the state of Israel was established. Palestine was invaded by Arab militaries → Arab Israeli War of 1948

• Israel’s territory expanded beyond UN’s original plan

• ~700,00 Palestinians fled or were forcefully removed from Palestine, and ~10,000 Jews in Palestine or Israel were forced out of their homes

• Jews fled to other nations such as Israel or refugee camps in Europe because of anti-Jewish sentiment

Israel invaded Egypt over the Suez Canal. War broke out between Egypt and Israel, and Jordan and Syria also joined in. Israel ended up victorious in the Six Day War. Led to possession of entire Sinai Peninsula, portions of Syria, and ~300,00 Palestinians were displaced

Yom Kippur War: Egypt and and Syria launched surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, Israel’s holiest day, who sought to gain territories and Arab pride. Although Israel retained most of its territory, it suffered severe casualties.

→ Camp David Accords: Intended for the peace in the region, resolve Palestinian issue, and promote diplomacy between the two states. It was the framework for conclusion of a peace treaty

First Intifada: Palestinian people’s uprising against Israeli occupation

Second Intifada: intense violence and severe economic and social disruption

Egypt

Egypt had large deficit in foreign trade balance. Egypt’s gold and currency dwindled rapidly. Nassar’s seizure of the Suez canal aggravated currency situation. Egypt also continued to spend lavishly on modernization of armed forces.

Management of agricultural sector: Government reorganized the economy along socialism. Limited amount of individual/family owned land. Nationalized much of the industrial, financial, and commercial sectors.

Land Reformation: aimed for reduction of agricultural rents and seizure of land property holding for public use. Also continued to maintain existing irrigation and drainage systems.

→ Capital investment in industry increased considerably. There was also growth in industrial production, boosting electricity consumption, cotton production, and cement output

→ Some projects, like the Giant Steel Mill, faced delays and proceeded very slowly due to engineering difficulties in chosen location. Additionally, petroleum refining industry could not meet domestic demand

→ Much of the land in Egypt was seized by the government, but only part of this land was distributed. Egyptian peasantry benefited through doubled incomes and reduction of land rent.

Topic 6: Global Resistance to Established Power Structures after 1945

Apartheid

Black South Africans attempted to challenge the National Party, the ruling party in South Africa. It was controlled by the white minority in South Africa, and it oppressed Black Africans. Implemented discriminatory laws such as classifying South Africans to racial categories, illegal interracial marriage, etc.

Political parties formed, such as African National Congress (ANC), South African communist Party (SACP), etc. These groups organized strikes, boycotts of white businesses, and protests. Issued Freedom Charter that called for the end of apartheid and freedom and opportunities for Black South Africans

Government attempted to stop protests using police forces and military. which led to the death of many South africans. Mandela, the leader of these protests, was imprisoned for 27 years. Internationally, South Africans were banned from Olympics, FIFA, etc. and companies stopped investing in South African industries.

New President FW de Klerk released Mandela and other prisoners. Got rid of segregation laws and Mandela got elected through free voting.

The country still continues to grapple with problems associated and resulting from apartheid, including poverty, crime, discrimination, etc.

Uganda

Attempted to challenge Amin and his government, who came to power when Amin seized power in a coup d’etat against President Obote.

Brutality: Thousands of civilians killed, and thousands of Indian and Pakistanis expelled from Uganda. Marked with violence, torture, and killings, with an estimated 100,000-500,000 deaths. Targeted supporters of Obote and rival ethnic groups, political rival groups Amin nationalized industries and expelled foreign businesses

Led to the decline in economy and embezzlement from country’s treasury.

Al-Queda and Osama bin Laden

Attempted to challenge the United States. Bin Laden was angry with the deployment of American troops in Saudi Arabia and also about US support for Israel and American involvement in their economy.

Bin Laden formed terrorist group “Al-Queda” → he provided training camps, financial support, planning, recruitment, etc. for fighters against the US. Led to major terrorist attacks, such as the World Trade Center Bombing, 9/11, etc.

September 11th Attack on World Trade Center: organized international coalition against Taliban (Afghanistan) government that supported Al-Queda. Succeeded in overthrowing Taliban government. → Increased racism and discrimination against Arab Americans, Muslims, and South Asians

Topic 7: End of the Cold War

Detente: period where cold war tensions eased → Reduction of hostility to signal relaxation of cold war tensions and prompted new spirit of cooperation between US and Soviet Union. The period was characterized by warm, personal relationships between US President Nixon and Soviet Leader Brezhnev. Led to series of summits and signing of international treaties, such as the Partial Test Ban Treaty, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, etc.

Soviet-Afghan War

When USSR invaded Afghanistan, people found that Russia was not a reliable ally, and affiliation with Soviet countries crippled. Believed that just as the way Soviets invaded Afghanistan, they could invade any other country as well.

Economic loss was significant, with an estimated 9 billion towards occupation in Afghanistan, Approximately 15,000 Soviet troopers were killed. It was also a hindrance to enhancing relationships with China and Iran. Russia ultimately decided to pull out of the unpopular, expensive, and unwinnable war.

Gorbachev’s Reforms

Perestroika: rapid political and economic restructuring meant to jump start the stagnant Soviet economy. Included creation of cooperative businesses, loosened restrictions on foreign trade, and decentralization of control over many businesses → economy worsened and increased political opponents

Glasnost: new press freedoms shone light upon public criticism against party leaders and Soviet institutions. Past abuses under Soviet systems were revealed. → Threatened the multi-ethnic soviet state with numerous ethnic minorities voicing discontent with Soviet life.

Revolutions in Eastern and Central Europe

Poland: solidarity-combined trade union and nationalist movement-put pressure on the ruling communist party. The National assembly began dismantling communist state. As a result, they held free elections and launched country towards democracy and market economy.

Czechoslovakia: “velvet revolution” → swept communists out and restored democracy. Little violence was associated with the seizure of power. Czechoslovakia broke into two nations: Czech Republic and Slovakia.

Fall of the Berlin Wall

East German regime decided to open Berlin wall to intra-German traffic → end of German Democratic Republic was in sight

Thousands of Berliners tore down the Berlin wall due to growing discontent. The two Germanies unified to form one nation.

Rise of Boris Yeltsin / Formal Collapse of the Soviet Union

Yeltsin dismantled the communist party and pushed the country towards market-oriented economic reforms. Several regions moved towards independence. The Soviet Union collapsed and creased to exist by 1991.